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David Hume

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David Hume

Empirist, skeptiker og nominalist. Hva er det vi kan vite sikkert og hvor kommer denne viten fra?
Målet er å undersøke våre forestillinger og tanker i den hensikt å bekrefte/avkrefte deres sannhets- eller gyldighetsgrad.
Analytisk kunnskap: kunnskap om forhold mellom begreper: logikk og matte. Sier ikke noe nytt om verden rundt oss.
Syntetisk kunnskap: Gir oss ny informasjon om subjektet. Baserer seg på sanseinntrykkene. Den er ikke sikker kunnskap, da sanseinntrykkene kan lure oss, men det er det nærmeste vi kan komme kunnskap om verden.
Det finnes ikke noe kunnskap om verden som ikke har sitt opphav i sanseerfaringen → det ligger til grunn for empirismen.
Inntrykk: en form for erfaring, umiddelbar, blir skapt i oss ved hjelp av sanseinntrykkene, en direkte opplevelse av noe.
Forestilling; en form for erfaring; inntrykk man tenker tilbake på og minnes, mattere og mindre klare enn inntrykkene, noe vi i siste instans fører tilbake til sanseinntrykk.

Sammensatte forestillinger: inntrykk og forestillinger settes sammen, noen ganger til rare kombinasjoner som for eksempel forestillingen om Gud. Gud er dermed ikke basert på noen sansning av Gud selv.
Assosiasjonsprinsippene ”liket”: gruppering av enkeltting → hume som nominalist.
Assosiasjonsprinsippet ”sammenheng”: vi slutter fra en ting til det som er i nærheten → fra en stjerne til alle de andre stjernene.
Assosiasjonsprinsippet ”Årsak/virkning”: kritiserer årsaksbegrepet!! Biljardkulene → hendelsesforløp, suksesjon(to hendelser følger etter hverandre), berøring, nødvendighet(det ene faktisk fører til det andre). Nødvendighet er grunnlaget for at vi kan danne oss naturlover, men Hume sier at vi ikke har erfart denne nødvendigheten med sansene våre. Det faktiske forholdet mellom årsaken og virkningen er ikke erfaringsbasert → strengt tatt representerer ikke dette noen form for kunnskap da nødvendigheten ikke kan festet på en av de to tennene til Humes gaffel!! Istedenfor er det en forventning i oss. Det vi har erfart en million ganger før, er det ingen garanti for at vil skjer i framtiden.
Induksjonsproblemet: Induksjon(slutning fra enkelttilfeller til allmenn lov) kan tilsynelatende aldri gi sikker kunnskap. Derimot er den en nytte å anta at det som har skjedd før, kommer til å skje igjen, vi kan bare ikke vite det.
Det som ikke kan festes på gaffelen anser Hume som ”meningsløst”. Jeg’et i Descartes ego-begrep er ikke noe man har erfart og blir derfor meningsløst. ”meningsløse” utsagn kan være sanne, men Hume mener at vi ikke kan si noe sikkert om dem. Empirismen setter en grense for hva som kan kalles kunnskap.
Humes filosofi er nytteorientert: Det er nyttig å basere seg på tidligere erfaring selv om vi ikke kan ha viten om at det kommer til å skje igjen. Logiske og matematiske begreper sier ikke noe om verden rundt oss, men består av sammenhenger mellom termer og begreper som er nyttig å bruke .
Som skeptiker: kan for eksempel ikke uttale oss med sikkerhet om det finnes en ytre verden. Vi kan ikke si noe sikkert om fremtiden → årsak/virkning prinsippet.
Deskriptive utsagn: det som forklarer det som er, det som er basert på erfaring, det som kan være sant eller falskt.
Normative utsagn: Det som bør være. Et uttrykk for følelser, ikke noe vi har erfart og dermed har kunnskap om.
Moral er et uttrykk for følelser og ikke noe vi kan si som sant eller falskt. Det har ikke noe med fornuften å gjøre, da det er et uttrykk for følelser. Vi har ingen kunnskap om moralen.
Moralen er et uttrykk for det som er nyttig for oss, men Hume mener at det ikke trenger å være en sammenheng mellom er og bør. Vi kan ikke slutte fra er til bør! Det som driver oss til handling er følelsesmessige reaksjoner. Den sansbare erkjennelsen handler om at vi setter kunnskap vi har fra før i en sammenheng → ”mennesker overlever ikke lenge i kaldt vann”.
Moral kommer fra erfaringen vi har fra våre følelser. Menneskets følelsesmessige reaksjoner er grunnlaget for all moral.
Humes ideal: følelser hos en ”uavhengig iakttaker” da følelsene blir sterkere om vi selv observerer situasjonen. For eksempel om noen blir slått.
Humes etikk er konsekvensetikk: Han måler en handlings verdi hovedsakelig ut i fra dens konsekvenser. En god handling om den fører til stor glede eller nytte. Men henter også inspirasjon fra dygdsetikken → den enkeltes følelse av behag skal stemme overens med det som er best for medmenneske.
Menneske kan føle lyst og lykke → viktigheten av sympati da vi kan se for oss oss selv i samme situasjon som andre.
Den uavhengige iakttaker er ingen konkret person → det er et ideal for hvert enkelt menneske. Moralske situasjoner skal kunne bedømmes på en upartisk måte. Det gjøres ved hjelp av dømmekraften.
Kritikk av rasjonalismen: hvordan man får kunnskap om verden, medfødte forestillinger,
Determinisme er læren om at alt som skjer er årsaksbestemt. Benekter at mennesket har viljesfrihet og hevder at alle handlinger og beslutninger er virkninger av årsaker som ligger i mennesket.
Hume er en myk determinist. Han mener at ingenting eksisterer uten at det finnes en årsak til dens eksistens. Setningen om at mennesker handler nøyaktig på samme måte i de samme omstendighetene er feil, men vi kan utforme et større antall grunnregler ut fra observasjoner av forskjellige menneskers ulike handlemåtes. Det blir da en viss grad av regelmessighet. De mest uregelmessige og uventede beslutninger hos mennesket kan ofte forklares ut i fra alle enkelthetene ved situasjonen. Han har for eksempel ikke fått middagen sin.

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