...Rationalism vs. Empiricism Both Rene Descartes and John Locke were philosophers who focus their attention on knowledge and reality. Rene Descartes was a rationalist, while John Locke was an Empiricist. In order to compare and contrast their views one must take a few steps. Firstly, one will need to identify what rationalism is and how Rene Descartes interpreted it. Then, one will look at John Locke’s position and define empiricism as well. Finally, one will compare both of their positions finding similarities and differences that liken and distinguish each. The Archetypes of Wisdom textbook define rationalism as “an epistemological position in which reason is said to be the primary source of all knowledge, superior to sense evidence” (Soccio, n.d.). To rationalists, people who practice the idea of rationalism, reason is the greatest factor one can rely on. Reason is something that is superior to the sense. Descartes believe that you can have what is know as priori knowledge. Priori knowledge, according to the textbook is “Truths that are not derived from observation or experiment, characterized as being certain, deductive, universally true, and independent of all experience.” (Soccio, n.d.) These ideas are sometimes called innate ideas. One example of an innate idea is music taste....
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...Philosophy Essay (Descartes vs. Locke) Socrates once said, “As for me, all I know is that I know nothing.” Several philosophers contradicted Socrates’ outlook and believed that true knowledge was in fact attainable. This epistemological view however had several stances to it, as philosophers held different beliefs in regards to the derivation of true knowledge. Rationalists believed that the mind was the source of true knowledge, while in Empiricism, true knowledge derived from the senses. Rene Descartes, a rationalist, and John Locke, an empiricist, were prime examples of epistemologists who were seen to differentiate greatly within each of their philosophies. However, although Descartes and Locke’s ideas did contrast in that sense, they both shared common concepts that helped mould the basis of their ideas. Descartes and Locke both agreed that there were things in life that exist that we can be certain of. For Descartes, human experiences did not provide sufficient proof of existence. He indicated that through his Dream Conjecture and his Evil-Demon Theory (Paquette 205). Descartes stated that we cannot be certain if reality is a dream or not, thus questioning our existence (Paquette 205). In his Evil-Demon Theory, Descartes claimed that for all he knew, an evil demon could be putting thoughts into his head, making him think that reality was true when it was in fact false (Paquette 205). Ultimately, all this thinking resulted in Descartes coming to the conclusion that...
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...Name: College: Campus/Time: Date: Speech Title: Optimism vs. Pessimism Introduction I. Introduction (Open with Impact): “An optimist may see a light where there is none, but why must a pessimist always run to blow it out?” stated famous French philosopher Rene Descartes. Descarte’s quote is an exceptional example of his influential work to two philosophers who defined optimism and pessimism. II. Focus on the Thesis Statement: Thomas Hobbes and John Locke were two leading political theorists throughout the seventeenth century who had two different perspectives on life. In Formulations website, Gordon Diem testifies Hobbes as the recognized author of "Leviathan," and Locke as the popular writer of "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding." III. Connect with the Audience: Everyone in the world has their own philosophies and outlooks on life; you might even have your own. IV. Preview of Main Points: a. Preview Point 1: Hobbe’s and Locke’s life before they became well known philosophers. b. Preview Point 2: Their opinions on the appearances of man. c. Preview Point 3: The natural characteristics people have within themselves. d. Preview Point 4: How all men are uniform in nature. Transition: I will begin by informing you about their opinions on the appearance of man. Body I. Main Point 1: A glimpse into the early life of certain individuals can momentously affect how one would evaluate the future and the people surrounding...
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...PHI130 Mind, Meaning, and Metaphysics DALILE, Boushra Rationalism vs. Empiricism: A Deficient Distinction Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. It explores how knowledge can be acquired and considers its limits and validity. Rationalism and empiricism are distinct epistemological schools of thought. Among others, they differ significantly regarding the source of concepts and ideas. Prominent rationalists, including Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz, argue that one must rely on reason as a purely deductive process to attain justified truths about reality (Cottingham 1988). In contrast, empiricists, including Locke, Berkeley and Hume, argue that knowledge is derived from the role of experience and sense data to formulate ideas. The question of what is the ideal foundation of knowledge is still debatable to date. I will argue that the rationalist vs. empiricist distinction is not exhaustive, and that carefully considering the approach-discipline relationship is crucial. In order to support this claim, this essay will discuss differences between rationalism and empiricism. Next, it will closely examine the advantages of each, drawing on the works of René Descartes and David Hume. Finally, this essay will identify problems with both theories and argue that reason and experience can together generate factual knowledge with respect to the subject matter. The major difference between rationalism and empiricism concerns their knowledge...
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...Daimyo… Bushido The Closing of Japan Nobunaga vs. Hideyoshi Matthew Perry Chapter 11: London on September 2, 1666-the great fire destroyed it. Francis Bacon-leading advocate of the empirical method Inductive reasoning Empirical method Rene Descartes Deductive reasoning Deism Johannes Kepler-had made detailed records of the movements of the planets, substantiating Copernicus’s theory that the cosmos was heliocentric (sun-centered), not geocentric (earth-centered) Galileo Galilei-improved the design and magnification of the telescope Geocentric Heliocentric The law of falling bodies (gravity) Pope Urban VIII Giordano Bruno Isaac Newton-computed the law of universal gravitation in a precise mathematical equation, demonstrating that each and every object exerts an attraction to a greater or lesser degree on all other objects The Industrial Revolution Lunar Society-a group of prominent manufactures,inventors,and naturalists met in and around Birmingham each month on the night of the full moon to discuss,chemistry,,medicine,gases,electricity,and every subject that may contribute to the fruitful society. Thomas Hobbes-argued in Leviathan that the people needed to submit to the authority of a ruler to prevent anarchy. The social contract gives up individual sovereignty in exchange for protection from depravity. Absolutism Social contract John Locke-argued that a ruler has limited authority; if the ruler fails to protect the people’s rights, then the people...
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...of ideas / Marc A. Hight. p. cm. Summary: ‘‘Provides an interpretation of the development of the ontology of ideas from Descartes to Hume that reaffirms the vital role metaphysical concerns played in early modern thinking’’—Provided by publisher. Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn 978–0-271–03383–9 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Ontology. 2. Idea (Philosophy). 3. Metaphysics. I. Title. BD301.H54 2008 110.9—dc22 2008002466 2008 The Pennsylvania State University All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Published by The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA 16802–1003 Copyright The Pennsylvania State University Press is a member of the Association of American University Presses. It is the policy of The Pennsylvania State University Press to use acid-free paper. This book is printed on Natures Natural, containing 50% post-consumer waste, and meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Material, ansi z39.48–1992. For ict and snj and `e in memory of rene elizabeth hight (1968–2006) contents Acknowledgments xi List of Abbreviations xiii Introduction: Idea Ontology and the Early Modern Tale 1 1 the traditional ontology 11 1.1 Substance 12 1.2 Modes 20 1.3 What Is an Idea? 22 1.4 Stretching Idea Ontologies 34 2 descartes 37 2.1 Representation 38 2.2 Perception,...
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...A Review of Ethics Concepts & Theories Educational Objectives: 1. Explain the type of problem that is addressed by philosophers. 2. Explain how ethical norms help address ethical issues that arise in accountancy. 3. Contrast the views of Mills, Machiavelli and Kant. 4. Describe what is meant by a social contract. 5. Analyze a given situation and tell why it would be appropriate or inappropriate to lie. 6. Explain the views of Kierkegaard and contrast him from other existentialists. 7. Discuss the concept that ethics cannot be based on religion. 8. Explain the use of ethical reasoning and how it can be used in your professional life. Introduction The major ethical principles accepted in the western world follow guidelines and rules that must be universally applied in all situations. These ethical principles are established primarily on the basis of teachings set forth by philosophers throughout the ages, starting with the great Greek thinkers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. As you might expect, there have been many alterations 修改 to these moral principles throughout the years. What was considered ethically correct by some was rejected by others and replaced with their own concept of what constituted moral or ethical behavior. A Comment about Philosophy: Philosophy, unlike science, addresses issues that cannot be solved. In fact, some philosophers state that if a problem can be solved, philosophers will not even...
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...Why was Socrates regarded as a man of virtue? Why was Socrates regarded as a man of virtue? Socrates: Man of Virtue (470-399 B.C.E.) Socrates proposed the theory of value in which there are two sorts of good: virtue and happiness. Both are unconditional goods. But happiness is a "self-generated" good in that it "derives its value strictly from its inherent properties;" whereas virtue is an "other-generated" good in that it derives its value from happiness, precisely from its conduciveness to happiness. Virtue is an instinct in all humanity which can be aroused through self-examination. This universal truth is accessible to everyone who thinks and question. Socrates assumes that any person with whom he talks has the resource to answer his question correctly, that is, that no specialist knowledge is required. Socrates thought that knowledge is virtue, and virtue leads to happiness. It makes sense to think that moral people know what morality is. If you know right from wrong, then you might be able to choose to do what you know to be right. It also makes some sense to suspect that our beliefs about right and wrong influence our decisions. If we believe its right to help a drowning child, then it would be fairly shocking to decide not to do so—and it would less surprising when we decide to help the child. It is quite a shocking statement to say that virtue always leads to happiness. Criminals commit crimes that hurt others to help themselves. To think that their crimes would...
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...Nature vs. Nurture Troy Crosland WGU Issues in Behavior Science GLT1 Nature vs. Nurture Issues concerning the nature vs. nurture debate are amongst the oldest in science. This debate centers around the argument of biological and genetic contributions as opposed to those imposed on human development from environmental factors. Many scholars such as Descartes and Plato suggest many of our individual traits are inherited from our parents, they happen naturally regardless of any influence from our environment. John Locke and many other prominent thinkers have promoted the idea of tabula rasa (blank slate), which promotes the idea that when born our minds are like a blank slate ready to be shaped by experience and influence from our environment. (Cherry, 2011, p. 1) The controversy surrounding the nature vs. nurture debate is over whether children develop various attributes based on their genetics known as “nature” or is it more associated to how they are raised which is know as “nurture”. (Sessions & Larson, 2011, expression 1) So why does it matter if we are born intelligent, or become intelligent? There are many reasons the nature vs. nurture debate continues, her are a few reasons: * Parenthood/Relationships: If specific attributes are due to environmental factors (nurture), parents and educators can implement the most effective methods discovered in order to get the best results. If said attributes are determined to be more influenced by genetics (nature)...
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...to generation. Those are the things we acquire to survive, things that are mainely based on our environment, and due to evolution these things get embedded in our system. So, in a way, I believe that the Nature aspects are in fact influenced by our environment. The Nurture aspects influence the Nature aspects and vice versa. The skills we are born with influence the things we pick up from our environment. Cause and effect.A big debate in psychology is nature vs nurture. The argument is as to whether a person's gene's (nature) mold them into an individual or whether their environment and how they are raised plays a part. The nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest issues in psychology. The debate centers on the relative contributions of genetic inheritance and environmental factors to human development. Some philosophers such as Plato and Descartes suggested that certain things are inborn, or that they simply occur naturally regardless of environmental influences. Other well-known thinkers such as John Locke believed in what is known as tabula rasa, which suggests that the mind begins as a blank slate. According to this notion, everything that we are and all of our knowledge is determined by our experience. For example, when a person achieves tremendous academic success, did they do so because they are genetically predisposed to be successful or is it a result of an enriched environment? Today, the majority of experts believe that behavior and development are influenced...
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...speak freely to engage in the ongoing struggle between religion and science. (Desmond, A. (n.d.)) Even though Darwin was able to publish his book, his theory was still scrutinized by many. Until this day a lot of people still do not accept his theory to be true. The lack of acceptance illustrates that in Darwin's case his freedom of speech was not completely free. In 1689 the Bill of Rights in England grants the right to freedom of speech in Parliament. This is one of the first times that such a right is clearly stated in an important national document. The Bill of Rights limited the powers of the monarch and established the rights of Parliament. The idea of granting members of Parliament the right to freedom of speech originated from John Locke. Locke claimed that men are naturally equal and free and should therefore also be able to express their opinions and beliefs freely. The French Revolution had an immense impact on the establishment of human rights, including freedom of speech. On August 4, 1789 the National Constituent Assembly signed the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen”. This was a statement of democratic principles mainly based on the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers, such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The Declaration did not only grant men freedom of speech, but also equal opportunity, popular sovereignty and representative government. (History.com (n.d.)) This historical event had a revolutionary effect all around the world. In 1791, for example, the US...
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...English Department University of Heidelberg HS Literature: Science and Religion Instructor: Dr. Prof. Jan Stievermann WS 11/12 Jonathan Edwards: The Theory of Conversion and His Disposition towards Science Angela Abram Am Güterbahnhof 26, 69181 Leimen angeljoy89@yahoo.com English philology, semester: 5 Matriculation number: 2828314 April 9th, 2012 1. Introduction 3 2. Jonathan Edwards 4 2.1. His Life and Calling 2.2. The Conversion Experience 6 3. Edward’s Disposition towards Science 10 3.1. Science as a Way to Know God 3.2. Book of Nature vs. Book of God 13 4. Is Empiricism Important? 14 5. Jonathan Edwards: A Scientist and Christian 18 6. Conclusion 21 Bibliography 23 Honor Pledge 24 1. Introduction Throughout the centuries the relationship between science and religion has been at times harmonious and at other times at odds with each other. Even today we still find many religious groups who see science as a threat to their belief system. Among these groups are Evangelical Christians. We hear of concerned mothers protesting against the teaching of evolution in front schools, pastors warning their congregation about the dangers of science and many more instances of believer trying to “fight against” scientific findings that are not compatible with the word of God. However, a closer look reveals that there...
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...Different schools of Psychology to the advancement of the field of Psychology Psychology began or has its roots in philosophy, the mother of all sciences. Aristotle in his works speaks rather remotely on different aspects of psychology. Among some of Aristotle’s major and famous works namely metaphysics, De Anime; he speaks of the soul which in profound consideration could come to the conclusion that it sounds synonymous with our modern understanding of ‘mind’. Thus psychology was a part of philosophy from the very beginning through it stands independently now. Further long before Aristotle existed; philosophers like Thales, Pythagoras, Heraclites and Parmenides spoke on the same subject even though it was not that much elaborated. Here we cannot forget the contribution made by Plato. He very clearly explains in his dialogues further on this matter. Psychology originated very simply as a result of the development of the metaphysical approach of the people of different times. In sociology it is an acceptable fact that the prevailing circumstances and state of a particular social milieu make a great impact on a particular matter. This impact varies from place to place time to time depending on the social characteristics. By inferences the aforementioned is the reason why there are different schools in psychology. When we analyses it stands to reason that all psychologists were trying to deal with the same matter. They have seen the same problems or the issues with regard to ‘mind’...
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...QUESTION 1 (B) - Students who go to class half an hour later than the prescribed start time for eight classes in a semester lost every desirable privileges (breaks during class, no football games, graduation dinner etc.). After the rule was implemented, there seemed to be a marked improvement in student attendance in class. How does operant conditioning explain the students’ behavior? Introduction Operant conditioning was thoroughly studied by Burrhus Frederick Skinner (B.F. Skinner), which he confirmed that someone learning ability is displayed by his or her behavior. When a factor in the person’s environment changes the consequences that they endure from their learning, can cause a positive or a negative impact on their behavior, which he categorize as reinforcers or punishments. Therefore, Operant Conditioning is a tool that can influence a person’s increasing or decrease his or her behavior by the consequences of their behavior. Operant conditioning will be illustrated by the behavior of the students when removing negative reinforcement or punishment or adding positive reinforcement or punishment (Robins et al, 2013). In this paragraph, the student’s behavior will be explained using Negative Reinforcement with the illustration of their behavior being increased frequently, towards the termination of the unfavorable consequence, which is, not having the privileges. From the question, the students attended to class early, which is their behavior, in order to avoid...
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...A2 Religious Studies Revision Booklet To be used alongside the textbook and your classnotes. Contents G581: Philosophy of Religion Religious Language......................................................………p.1 Religious Experience........................................................…...p.7 Miracles..................................................................…………...p.12 Nature of God............................................................………...p.16 Life and Death.........................................................…………..p.20 G582: Religious Ethics Meta-ethics...........................…………………………………….p.25 Free Will and Determinism………………………………….……p.28 Conscience.......................…………………………………….…p.32 Virtue Ethics………………………………………………………..p.36 Sexual Ethics…………………………………………………...….p.40 Environment and Business Ethics……………………………….p.44 Religious Language Introduction The problems of religious language: • If we use language univocally about God, then we are limiting him / making him like a human • If we use language equivocally about God, we cannot be sure what the word means when applied to God • Are statements about God supposed to be cognitive – if so, what evidence proves / disproves them? • Are statements about God supposed to be non-cognitive – if so, do they have any meaning? The Verification...
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