QUESTION 1 (B) - Students who go to class half an hour later than the prescribed start time for eight classes in a semester lost every desirable privileges (breaks during class, no football games, graduation dinner etc.). After the rule was implemented, there seemed to be a marked improvement in student attendance in class. How does operant conditioning explain the students’ behavior?

Introduction
Operant conditioning was thoroughly studied by Burrhus Frederick Skinner (B.F. Skinner), which he confirmed that someone learning ability is displayed by his or her behavior. When a factor in the person’s environment changes the consequences that they endure from their learning, can cause a positive or a negative impact on their behavior, which he categorize as reinforcers or punishments. Therefore, Operant Conditioning is a tool that can influence a person’s increasing or decrease his or her behavior by the consequences of their behavior. Operant conditioning will be illustrated by the behavior of the students when removing negative reinforcement or punishment or adding positive reinforcement or punishment (Robins et al, 2013).

In this paragraph, the student’s behavior will be explained using Negative Reinforcement with the illustration of their behavior being increased frequently, towards the termination of the unfavorable consequence, which is, not having the privileges. From the question, the students attended to class early, which is their behavior, in order to avoid the undesired privileges that are associated with their late attendance. Therefore, the students displayed negative reinforcement when, their attendance was increased, and the unpleasant stimulus, ceased or terminated. The students can now enjoy the good and pleasant privileges associated with their increased occurring attendance or behavior. According to Skinner, negative reinforcement is a person increasing their behavior frequently, towards the consequences because the outcome was a threat or an unpleasant stimulus rather than a reward (Atkinson et al, 2009).

The students in this question did not depict Negative Punishment. The students did attend their classes half an hour late, their behavior portrayed and the consequence was, their late attendance means no desired privileges. The students was not granted the desired privileges, or the favorable outcome, while they attended classes late, they had to change their behavior to be rewarded. Therefore, according to Skinner negative punishment is a person’s behavior decreasing when the consequences are due to the removal of a pleasant stimulus or a desire that was wanted by the person (Atkinson et al, 2009).

Positive Reinforcement was illustrated after the change in the students’ behavior, their late attendance changed, which then allowed them to enjoy the reward of having the desired privileges. Positive Reinforcement would have occurred if their behavior was desirable and the consequences for such excellent attendance would have been, the opportunity to enjoy the privileges granted. Skinner explained a desirable behavior from a person, the consequences are, the person, is rewarded for their favorable behavior (Carlson et al, 1997).

In this question, the students had a negative stimulus, which was the no privileges, that was already being administered after they attended classes half an hour later than scheduled. With this negative stimulus already being in place, it is the students that chose to attend their classes half an hour later than scheduled. Therefore, the students made their own decision to continue attending their classes late, which denied them the privileges. Therefore, a positive punishment was already in place informing the students not to be late for their classes, else the consequences are unfavorable. According to Skinner, positive punishment is used to weaken or terminate a person’s response to the consequences being faced with, decreasing rather than increasing their behavior. (“Simply Psychology”).

In summary, as shown above, clearly the Operant Condition also known as the Instrumental Condition by Skinner showed that a person’s behavior is affected by consequences or behavior changes towards the consequences, which relates to positive reinforcements, negative reinforcements, positive or negative punishment. Positive consequences will strengthen the behavior of a person or the students in this question, were as, negative consequences will weaken the students’ behavior. Therefore, the students clearly demonstrated negative reinforcement due to their behavior in this question.

REFERENCES:
Carlson, N. R., & Buskist, W. (1997). Psychology: The science of behavior. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
McLeod, S. (2007). Simply Psychology. Retrieved March 07, 2016, from http://www.simplypsychology.org/
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B. L., Loftus, G. R., Wagenaar, W. A., Atkinson, R. L., & Hilgard, E. R. (2009). Atkinson & Hilgard's introduction to psychology. Andover: Cengage Learning.
QUESTION 2
Nine-year-old David is always getting into trouble for what his father terms irresponsible behavior. His father says that he needs to think before he acts. How would Jean Piaget account for David’s behavior?

Introduction
Jean Piaget studied the cognitive development that is, the learning ability stages of a child, from the age of zero to eleven years old. Piaget through his experiment using his own children at stages in their own lives realized that there are stages in a child lives that allow them to explore, reason and accept changes and situations that they are exposed to. Concepts are also acknowledged to children at an early stage where rules are understood by the use of objects, together with other objects and the causes of those objects when they are touched or used (Carlson et al, 1997). Accommodation is a level when the child accepts what is being taught to him as being correct even though they view differently, they will accept the situation as it fits with the information that is provided. Piaget cognitive development has four stages, the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage, the stage of concrete operations and the stage of formal operations (Atkinson et al. 2009). David’s behavior will be explained in the concrete operations stage.

The first developmental stage of a person, Jean Piaget calls, the sensorimotor stage gives importance to a newborn baby up to a two-year-old child to learn and understand their surroundings mainly by actions and understanding the consequences for them. At this stage, children develop their sense of touching and tasting of items that surrounds them. Their minds are exploring the different materials or even faces among them that they can relate to by understanding the nature of them through touch and taste. At an early stage, they will focus and look at items that will not interest them if the item disappears or is hidden from them. Closer to the age of two, a child's senses becomes a bit sharper than the younger age, where they will not be able to identify objects and search or look for an object in the places they were last seen. Jean Piaget observed that at each stage it is a condition for the child to move on to the other stages of his or her life (Carlson et al, 1997).

The second stage is the Preoperational stage that a child is mainly in the age bracket of two years to six or seven years of age. At this stage, the child will be able to distinguish objects and identify other matter that can be represented by the objects. Children can think symbolically but during this stage, they will not be able to understand too many rules and separating, combing and transforming of things logically (Atkinson et al, 1997). There are crucial stages at this level some are; Centration – this is a child being able to concentrate on one condition or object at a time, unable to think or control more than one situation all at once. Then Egocentrism- this is the child ability to think and communication as oneself, without the thought of another person viewing differently to what they see, hear and feel. The play is another stage. At this stage the child ability to play but next to other and not with others, they tend to be among the other children but lack direct communication. The other stages are; Symbolic Representation, Pretend play, Animism, Artificialism and Irreversibility (“Simply psychology”).

David’s behavior in the question is at the next stage of Jean Piaget developmental theory, which is, the Operational Stage or the Concrete Operational stage. At this stage, children are between the ages of seven and twelve of their life and are able to easily control several concepts and begin to present other logical operations. Children have a clearer understanding of objects and how these objects can be used directly, and physically accessible (Atkinson et al, 1997). Children are now mature enough to use logical operations and rules and can gain the ability of conservation and reversibility. They think rationally and in an organized manner by solving problems objectively logically, but are unable to think theoretically or hypothetically (“Simply Psychology”). Therefore, with this theory, it explains why David is reacting in a manner his father deems him to be irresponsible because David can think and organize and make rational decisions but he is unable to think and make decisions that are intellectual or academic as his father does.

The final and fourth stage of Jean Piaget child’s development theory is the Formal Operations, which begins from the age of eleven plus. At this stage children are more mature from the first stage as a baby so they now think more logically, abstractly and hypothetically (Carlson et al, 1997). Therefore, their climb has to reach the adolescents stage where they are able to manipulate ideas, perform mathematical calculations, think and act creatively, use more abstract reasoning and knows or imagines consequences of their own actions. Children will see things clearer and understands relationships between things (“simply psychology”).

To summarize, Piaget cognitive developmental four stages, Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete and Formal of a child’s development outlined a detailed life of a child until his or her adulthood. Indeed, it is of great importance to comprehend these stages when understanding a child’s ability through his or her life at each level. Many people have not reached this level of formal operational even physically mature adults but without any cases of brain injury or diseases, an individual will perform intellectually at this level (Carlson et al, 1997). David’s behavior was clearly illustrated at the level of a child at the operational or concrete operational stage.

REFERENCES:
Carlson, N. R., & Buskist, W. (1997). Psychology: The science of behavior. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
McLeod, S. (2007). Simply Psychology. Retrieved March 07, 2016, from http://www.simplypsychology.org/
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B. L., Loftus, G. R., Wagenaar, W. A., Atkinson, R. L., & Hilgard, E. R. (2009). Atkinson & Hilgard's introduction to psychology. Andover: Cengage Learning.

QUESTION 3
One of your closet friends always has to have everything in a certain “order”, they seldom, if ever break from their routine, and seem to never complain with the rest of employees of money problems. How would Freud explain this behavior?

Introduction
Sigmund Freud theory of psychoanalysis involves personality that is the reaction one will have towards people and situations that they are faced with. The theory of personality further explains how a person personality develops and the personalities of people differ from each other. Freud’s psychodynamic theory shows emphasis on early childhood experiences and the disagreements found with conscious thoughts and unconscious forces and motivation all that influences a person’s feelings, thoughts and behaviors (“Freud & humanistic theories”. PPT). Freud psyche structured systems into three parts, which are, the id, ego, and superego, which are, developments in different stages of a person’s life. The psychosexual stages are the stages that Freud describes the level of personality development, which is enhanced from one stage to another. The developments are Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent, and Genital (“Simple Psychology”). Freud anal stage will discuss the friend’s behavior in this question.

Oral Stage is the first personality development stage where the libido (sexual energy) is focused child’s learning using his mouth mostly, orally for such satisfaction, for example, breastfeeding. This stage will be implanted in personalities where individuals mostly under stress or life pressures will find themselves as smokers, nail-biters, finger chewers and thumb suckers.

Anal stage, will demonstrate what the “closest friend” in the question is experiencing, it is also called the anal-retentive personality. The anal stage is where the sexual energy now focuses on the anal of the child, allowing the child to feel great pleasure while defecating. To explain, when the child realizes that they can control such urges conflicts arise among child and parent when the parent is persistent for the child to release his pleasure by allowing long hours upon a potty until such is done. Freud believes this type of conflict then leads a child to become an anal-retentive personality. That is a person who hates the mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority (“Simple Psychology”).

The phallic stage which concentrates in the genitals and masturbation of both sexes, another pleasure. At this stage, Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) where the boys most loved part is his penis and he then adopts and imitates the role of a male gender’s values, attitudes, and behaviors of a male person. The Electra complex (in girls) is less satisfactory than the boys for the girls desires the father but becomes disappointed in him with envy, for her not having a penis. The girl then ignores her feelings and will then identify with the mother and take on the female gender role. “The child becomes aware of the anatomical sex differences which set in motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear” (“ Simple Psychology”)

The Latency stage no sexual energy (libido) at this stage, the child concentration is submerged in other focuses such as schoolwork, hobbies, play with the same gender and acquiring new skills and knowledge.
The final stage, the genital stage (puberty to adult), which is the time of adolescence where sexual experimentation is at full swing and relationships are flourishing in the 20’s. Sexuality is engaged to heterosexual (one of each gender) instead of self- pleasure (masturbating) that is encountered in the third stage. Addiction at the oral stage may result in a person being satisfied without sexual intercourse (“Simple Psychology”)

In conclusion, Freud theory shows that personality development through a person’s life is the reason for a person’s behavior at their adult stage. The psychosexual stages of development which consist of Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent and Genital makes the reaction of a person, which tells the level or stages they might have been stuck on, from a baby too since their younger years and then to adulthood of their life. Many are still confused due to conflicts that arise during their early stages and even their stage from puberty to adulthood. The friend in the questioned behavior clearly portrayed the anal stage of Freud personality development theory.

REFERENCES:
Carlson, N. R., & Buskist, W. (1997). Psychology: The science of behavior. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
McLeod, S. (2007). Simply Psychology. Retrieved March 07, 2016, from http://www.simplypsychology.org/
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B. L., Loftus, G. R., Wagenaar, W. A., Atkinson, R. L., & Hilgard, E. R. (2009). Atkinson & Hilgard's introduction to psychology. Andover: Cengage Learning.
QUESTION 4
Jane and Dana are best friends but they are very different. Jane is pessimistic, always expecting bad things to happen to her while Dana is always positive and optimistic. How would Rogers explain these differences?

Introduction
Carl Rogers has studied Humanistic Theory, which associates with self-actualization from Abraham Maslow pyramid that demonstrates a person’s hierarchy of needs in life (Atkinson, et al, 1997). Humanistic Theory focuses on the development of a person from childhood under his or her parents care to adulthood with an environment that gives genuineness, acceptance, and empathy. The realization of one's self-being congruence or still searching or confuse being incongruent all relates to, a person reaching his or her potential by many life factors that must be first satisfied. These factors are Self-Actualization also known “fully functioning persons”, which has five characteristics, Self-concept which includes three components, and unconditional and conditional positive regard (“Simply Psychology”).

This paragraph will identify the differences between a person being optimistic and a person being pessimistic with self-actualization being discussed. Referring to Dana in the question, optimism occurs within a person’s behavior, by the way, they perceive situations during their life. This accomplishes their unique potentials of positive or right conditions and within the good environment, and then this creates the person’s personality. Childhood experiences contribute to a person’s self-actualization or a fully functioning person, which occurs when wishes, goals, and desires for a person’s life are achieved. Fully functioning persons have not completed their life’s journey for it is a process of continuous growth and changes. Fully functioning persons is identified by five characteristics, which are, firstly, open to experience this is the acceptance of positive and negative emotions and being able to relate to negativity. Secondly, existential living, the avoidance of prejudgments and preconceptions throughout the different experiences that one face in life.

Third, trust feelings, where persons identify their instincts and gut reactions and pay attention to their trusted emotions. Fourth, creativity, being able to take risks in life, having that ability to modify, makes any change and pursues innovative experiences. And lastly, fulfilled life, the person being satisfied with life, the new experiences, and challenges that it carries (“Simple psychology”). Jane, on the other hand, is pessimistic, which is clearly the opposite of her friend Dana, a person who is optimistic. Roger thinks that all persons are naturally good and creative and they only become destructive when poor self-concept or external constraints from their environment override the process of valuing life, therefore, Rogers beliefs are that “for a person to achieve self- actualization they must be in a state of congruence” (“Simple psychology”).

Self is comprised of perceptions that are distinctive to oneself and an optimistic person will have positive impacts on one's self whereas a pessimistic person will have negative impacts. Self –concept has three components, firstly self-worth that is person’s self-esteem what they think about themselves. This is developed in the early stages of a person’s life and is formed from the interaction between a child with mother and father. Poor self-esteem can be the results of a person being pessimistic. Where no confidence exists, always negative feelings about one's self, unable to relate to failures and unhappiness, will be defensive and cautious towards other people. Then, self-image, which is the way someone sees himself or herself physically, their body image and inner personality. This will detect the way a person will think, feel and behaves in the world. Then thirdly, ideal self is the person someone will like to become or be that consists of the person’s goals, ambitions and the dynamics that is always changing through our levels of life, that is ideal self from childhood is different to teenage years to the years in the twenties and moving higher.

Unconditional positive regard is the
“Unconditional love and acceptance of an individual by another person”
(Carlson et al, 1997). Mostly, parents and significant others accept and love the person for what he or he may be by his or her personality. This positive regard is never faded regardless of the wrong or mistakes the person may undertake and the unfavorable consequences that may occur. Persons of optimistic behavior tends to try new things out and make mistakes even though the impacts may become worst at times, this is self-actualization where positivity is focused on since childhood (“Simple psychology”). Conditional positive regard, on the other hand, is the actions of the child that is pleasing to others, mostly his or her parents. Focus will be on positively satisfying others without realizing one's potentials. Focus will be lost on his or her own aspects of life, which can positively impact on personality growth. This can restrict a person’s progress towards self-actualization, therefore, become pessimistic rather than optimistic (Carlson et al, 1997).

In summary, a person being pessimistic like Jane or optimistic like Dana all depends on the person’s self-actualization that is developed through the years of interacting with parents or another guardian that also impacts by the positivity or negativity of their environment. The realization of a person's self-being congruence or incongruent all relates to, a person reaching his or her own potential by many life factors, that are, Self-Actualization knew “fully functioning persons”, Self-concept, and unconditional and conditional positive regard that must be first satisfied (“Simply Psychology”).

REFERENCES:
Carlson, N. R., & Buskist, W. (1997). Psychology: The science of behavior. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
McLeod, S. (2007). Simply Psychology. Retrieved March 07, 2016, from http://www.simplypsychology.org/
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B. L., Loftus, G. R., Wagenaar, W. A., Atkinson, R. L., & Hilgard, E. R. (2009). Atkinson & Hilgard's introduction to psychology. Andover: Cengage Learning.

QUESTION 5
One of your classmates repeatedly claims that she just was not born with the skills to master the level of work dealt with at C.O.S.T.A.A.T.T. You, on the other hand, believe that hard work and dedication is what pays off at this level. Discuss these differing views using the “Nature vs. Nurture” debate.

Introduction
Psychology is the study of human behavior studied scientifically together with mental processes of persons from birth to adulthood. The debate on “nature vs. nurture” has been a long-standing debate to distinguish if a person’s behavior is inherited or if a person’s behavior is learned during their years of existence. Dated back to the seventeenth century Rene Descartes a French philosopher supported the view that a person’s behavior are inherent and on the contrary, John Locke an English philosopher had the opinion at birth a person’s mind is “tabula rasa” which he considers the person’s mind is like a blank slate where experiences influence a person’s behavior as they mature (Associationist Psychology), (Atkinson et al, 1997). To highlight this debate, further explanation regarding a person’s behavior towards their ability to learn and understand as they mature, taking into consideration the two students with different attitudes towards their schooling, the three perspectives on psychology, behaviorist, cognitive and biological will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

Behaviorist Perspective
Behaviorism examines people, as being controlled by their environment factors known as stimuli and the results or the effects are known as the response, is what was learned from the environment. The main processes of the behaviorist approach are classical conditioning that involves learning ability by association and operant conditioning involves the learning from the consequences of one's behavior, as a result, where people will learn from the environment they are exposed.
Classical conditioning theory by Ivan Pavlov comprises a person learning a new behavior via the process of association of two stimuli (a thing or an event) linked together. B.F. Skinner studied operant conditioning the next main process, which deals with operant that are a person’s deliberate actions that can be voluntary and involuntary behavior that have an effect on their surrounding environment. Reference to the question, obviously a person’s behavior can be shaped using these techniques such as positive and negative reinforcement and positive and negative punishment. Parents can use these practices to teach their children how to behave, therefore nurturing is being displayed (“Simple Psychology”).

Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive is the study by Piaget, this is the development of a person’s mental practices, and their role in thinking, feeling and behaving. He focused on a person’s processing information that is the stimulus or input and the response, which is the output. Piaget developed three basic components, firstly a schema, which is a set of connected mental representations of the world or the level where a child can identify with development, which is used both to understand and to respond to situations. Secondly, Equilibrium, assimilation, and accommodation that are adoption processes that enable the person to have a smooth transition from one stage to the next. Third and final is the Stages of Development, is a child development of a mental model of the world.
“children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge are based” (“Simple Psychology”).
Regarding the two students in the question, it can be clearly seen that, the student who believe she was not born with the level to deal with the school work, this cognitive psychology showed, that a person’s brain is developed mentally and is used from one stage to another identifying and analyzing by the use of their mental minds to shape the way the person will think, behave and feel. In summary according to Piaget Cognitive Psychology refers to genetic (“Simple Psychology”).

Biological Psychology
Charles Darwin determined that genetics and evolution are part influential in the human behavior through natural selection. Reference to the student in the question who believe she was not born to adapt to the level of the work at school, biological psychology showed that influence is present commonly to allow a person to adapt generically to the way they think and act accordingly. Biological approach studies believe that most person’s behavior is hereditary and has an adaptive function. This psychological perspective looks at how the human nervous system, hormones, and genetic makeup affect the person’s behavior, also explores the connection between mental states and your brain. Biological Psychology is clearly based on the nature part of nature vs. nurture debate (“Simple Psychology”).

Psycho Dynamic
Sigmund Freud theory of psychoanalysis involves personality, which is the reaction one will have towards people and situations that they are faced with throughout their lives. The theory showed emphasis on early childhood experiences, how a person personality develops and the personalities of people differ from each other. Freud psyche structured systems into three parts, which are, id the pleasure principle, ego the reality principles, and superego the morality principle, which are, developments in different stages of a person’s life. The developments are Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent, and Genital (“Simple Psychology”). This theory is used to nurture a child’s ability through child psychology and personal development.

In summary, without a final conclusion regarding the “nature vs. nurture” debate, the theories referring to nurture has developed more strength during the considering the theories, which associated with the debate. A person having none or little exposure to environmental influences, will, therefore, lack simple and common basic skills such as talking and walking, each person being absolutely different in many ways. Therefore, referencing to the theories, it shows that a person must develop their behavior and control their personality by choosing to change their environment that surrounds them. The student in the questions who believes she is unable to control the workload that she believes is overbearing at the college needs to enhance her ability to control and direct her thinking to be a positive motivator to her performance of assessing her ability at school. I believe the dedication and hard work will always pay off at the end of my studies.

REFERENCES:
Carlson, N. R., & Buskist, W. (1997). Psychology: The science of behavior. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
McLeod, S. (2007). Simply Psychology. Retrieved March 07, 2016, from http://www.simplypsychology.org/
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B. L., Loftus, G. R., Wagenaar, W. A., Atkinson, R. L., & Hilgard, E. R. (2009). Atkinson & Hilgard's introduction to psychology. Andover: Cengage Learning.