Developmental Readings Log
Philosophy of Adult Education Course Objectives

Burns, R. 2002, The adult learner at work the challenges of lifelong education in the new millennium, 2nd edition. Crows Nest, New South Wales. Allen & Unwin.

1. p. 229 (Additive - Objective # 2)

These goals are possible only where individuality is an asset, where belonging and acceptance are supreme, where there are opportunities to explore and gain self-understanding, where there is trust, dignity and security and where self-confidence, self-reliance, originality, responsibility and independence are encouraged. It is only in this sort of learning that a person is open to experience and therefore capable of maximal utilisation of their potentialities and environmental opportunities for self-development, learning how to learn and developing the curiosity, enjoyment and intrinsic satisfaction from learning that will draw them back again and again to lifelong learning.

2. p. 231 (Variant - Objective # 2)

The learner has to adjust themselves to an established curriculum and teaching method. As self-direction and self-responsibility are not encouraged, the growing maturity of young people creates a gap between the need and ability to be self-directing and the opportunity to do so.

Hence the tension, resentment and even rebellion that is common in secondary schools today. The child's experience is not counted of worth. Learners only learn what is in the syllabus or what they must pass. Learning experiences are organised round the logic of the artificial subject divisions. Motivation is engendered by marks, assessment, parental pressure and teacher approval. As a result, many students leave school having lost interest in learning, disillusioned later in adulthood about the value and enjoyment of returning to learning.

Knowles conception of andragogy is an attempt to build a comprehensive theory or model of adult education anchored in the characteristics of adult learners (Merriam & Caffarella, 1991, p. 249). It might be better to use such characteristics in a more limited way to offer a framework for thinking about what and how adults learn. Such approaches might be contrasted with those that focus on changes in consciousness (e.g. Mezirow 1983, 1990; or Freire, 1970 - see below).Knowles makes extensive use of a model of relationships derived from humanist clinical psychology - and, in particular, the qualities of good facilitation advocated by Carl Rogers (see below). This means that there is a rather confused human deficit model lurking in the background of his ideas.

3. p. 231 (Additive - Objective # 2)

Adults can judge the value of a learning and its relevance to their own lives. The teacher of an adult functions best as a resource person who views the learning process as a cooperative endeavour. That is not to say that the learner possesses knowledge equal to that of the teacher but that the teacher respects and values the experiences of the adult student and uses them as a basis to advance the learning process.
Denton, V.L. 1993, Booker T. Washington and the adult education movement. #15 Northwest 15th Street, Gainesville, FL. USA. University Press of Florida

4. p. 192 (Additive - Objective # 1)

In the context of adult education, Kallen argued that the American idea, based on the “American creed”, it has been a "directive" to adult education in private lives, the nation's history at home, and our democratic cooperation with foreign countries, giving substance to the teaching and the behavior of adults.

According to Kallen, adult education has moved, toward Henry Adams's concept of education and expressed by Robert Peers: "to help men and women to work out for themselves an effective attitude to life based on wider knowledge, to discover a philosophy which will enable them to face up to life's problems individually and collectively.

5. p. 202 (Additive - Objective # 1)

Malcolm Knowles wrote in a 1964 article that adult education has deep historical roots. Noting that the movement might be the educational frontier of the twentieth century, Knowles traced the beginnings of adult education to Confucius, Isaiah, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Jesus Christ--all teachers of mature adults rather than children.

The working class spearheaded the adult education movement in Sweden, and it was centralized in labor unions, temperance societies, cooperative associations, and the Social Democratic party. Adult education in Great Britain was rooted in labor unions, workers' education, voluntary organizations, local education authorities, and universities. Totalitarian countries have characteristically used adult education as an instrument of government to propagate political philosophy, Knowles reported. As early as the colonial period, adult education was evidenced in town meetings and colonial legislatures, teaching the tools of liberty and self-government.

6. p. 204-207 (Additive - Objective # 1)

Pioneering adult education programs, Booker T. Washington was well centered in the adult education movement--its history, philosophy, aims, and theories--in the United States and the rest of the world.

Washington assumed the principles of andragogy without the use or knowledge of the popular term in adult education today. In the tradition of humanism, he certainly believed that adults have a natural inclination to learn, that they learn in structured and unstructured environments as proposed by Allen Tough, and that learning moves individuals through levels of self-knowledge and responsibility toward self-actualization in the Maslow hierarchy.

Reviewing his commitment to social progress, educators facing the approaching century with its inherent problems are reminded again of the purpose of adult education, as stated by Lindeman and practiced by Washington: "Adult education will become an agency of progress if its short-time goal of self-improvement can be made compatible with a long-time, experimental but resolute policy of changing the social order.

Changing individuals in continuous adjustment to changing social functions, this is the bilateral though unified purpose of adult learning.
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Green, H. L., Dr. 2010, Transformational leadership in education. LaVergne,TN, USA.. Global Ed Advance Press.

7. p. 15. (Additive - Objective # 1.)
The Philosophy : The teaching/learning interface should be structured to precipitate transformational change through aggressive learning and innovative instruction.

Adult Education Principles:
1. Adults bring a lot of experience with them to training sessions and they therefore have something to contribute and something to lose.

2. Adults prefer to focus on real life, immediate problems rather than on theoretical situations.

3. Adults are accustomed to being active, flexible and self-directing.
8. p. 95. (Additive - Objective # 4.)

All planning should have a foundation in philosophy and permit the philosophy to provide guidance in selecting specific goals. Once the philosophy and goals are joined, one can determine the methodology. The relationship of Philosophy, goals and methods formulate the development of the planning process.

9. p. 192. (Additive - Objective # 2.)
The philosophy of education of Oasis Institute of Higher learning promotes the vision of interdisciplinary academic studies, using the application of the Andragogy model ( Critical thinking concepts) as an alternative delivery system for mature students. The primary goal of Oasis is to positively transform and synthesize the experienced adult learner the with the knowledge of positive global transformational concepts and innovative constructs that integrates morality, ethical thinking and behaviour back into society with the aim of making an affirmative and beneficial difference in Trinidad and Tobago and the Caribbean Region.
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Hammersley, M. 1990, The dilemma of qualitative method: Herbert Blumer and the Chicago tradition. 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxford, OX14 4RN, UK. Routledge.

10. p.156-157 (Additive - Objective 4)
David Matza provides a more extended discussion of the philosophy-or, more accurately, the anti-philosophy-of naturalism. He points out that, rather confusingly, the term 'naturalism' is often used to refer to the application of the methods of the natural sciences to the study of the social world. The overriding commitment of naturalism, he claims, is 'to the phenomena and their nature' (Matza 1969:3).

Furthermore, such a commitment: stands against all forms of philosophical generalization. Its loyalty is to the world, with whatever measure of variety or universality happen to inhere in [that world]. Naturalism does not and cannot commit itself to eternal preconceptions regarding the nature of phenomena. Consequently, it does not and cannot commit itself to any single preferred method for engaging and scrutinizing phenomena.

11. p. 52-54 (Additive - Objective 4)

John Dewey was a Hegelian at the beginning of his intellectual career, attracted to that philosophy because of its capacity to overcome the dualisms traditional in western philosophy and theology: between mind and matter, subject and object. Antipathy to such dualisms persisted with his shift to a pragmatic or instrumentalist philosophy, under the influence of James, Peirce, and, his colleague at Michigan and Chicago, George Mead. Dewey viewed human life as part of nature, but rejected mechanistic or materialistic accounts of it.
One of his most influential early articles was a critique of the stimulus-response model of behaviour. Dewey pointed out that it is only by virtue of this receptivity that an object becomes a stimulus. Objects as stable and meaningful phenomena are constituted by observation and thought. Like Peirce, Dewey sees inquiry as arising from problems occurring in the course of action and being directed towards the solution of those problems.

Dewey argues that the relationship between a warranted assertion and the original problematic situation is analogous to that between a key and a lock. In short, the justification of knowledge and of methods of inquiry lies in the facilitation of successful action in the world. A central issue for Dewey was the relationship between science and life. Dewey, like James, attacked this 'spectator' theory of knowledge, arguing that knowledge is an instrument used by humans to solve problems and achieve their goals, and it is only in these terms that it has value.
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Lieberman,A.; Pointer Mace, D. 2010. Making practice public: Teacher learning in the 21st century. Jornal of teacher education. 61. 1-2. 77+

12. (Additive - Objective # 3)

Teachers have long perceived professional development, though well intentioned, to be fragmented, disconnected, and irrelevant to the real problems of their classroom practice. The idea of teacher quality and its importance in improving student learning have made this a time when such ideas as professional knowledge are paramount. We document the policies and practices of professional development in high-achieving countries internationally that have transformed the way teachers learn, and we discuss the importance of online social networking as it is being used for teacher learning.

13. (Variant - Objective # 3)

As a general rule we have not recognized the power of teachers to analyze their own practice as a critical centerpiece of high-quality professional development (Darling-Hammond, Chung-Wei, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009).

14. (Additive - Objective # 4)

The United Kingdom has implemented a National Literacy and Numeracy strategy that concentrates on these two areas by using a model that specifically works to help teachers work with new materials and gain understanding of new methods. The idea is to increase teacher expertise.
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Merriam, S.B.; Brockett, R. G. 2007, The profession and practice of adult education: An introduction Jossey-Bass higher and adult education series. The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, UK. John Wiley and Sons.

15. p. 37 (Additive - Objective # 1)

"Knowles (1980) who has had a tremendous influence on adult education, developed his theory of andragogy out of both humanistic and progressive philosophies. As Pratt (1993) observes, andragogy resets upon Knowles’s belief in the ideals of a democratic citizenship and the belief that civic and democratic virtue would arise out of the natural self-fulfillment through adult education."

16. p. 28-31 (Additive - Objective # 1)

A philosophy of education is a conceptual framework embodying certain values and principles that renders the educational process meaningful. A philosophy of education typically includes discussions of terms, aims and objectives, curricula, methods, the teaching-learning transaction, the role of society and the roles of student teacher.

Also suggested are ways to engage in philosophizing about adult education. Adults are more likely to be motivated or ready to learn if they perceive a learning need. The programme can be constructed and places high value on adults from all socioeconomic classes having access to learning opportunities. A reason for also examining our philosophy of adult education is that what we assume and value can directly affect curriculum and instruction.

According to Knowles (1980) proposed that adult learners have independent self-concepts and hence like to be self-directed in planning and evaluating their learning. The examination of practice visa-versa, knowles’s principles has, in essence, refined the knowledge base of adult learning.

In summary, there are good reasons for philosophizing or systematically examining the principles, values and assumptions that underlie the practice of adult education. Such activity provides guidelines for making decisions and setting policy, affects both curriculum and instruction, facilitates good interpersonal communication and contributes to the development of adult education as a professional filed of practice.

17. p. 35 (Additive - Objective # 1)

The new approach, loosely referred to as the progressive education movement, drew from the philosophy of pragmatism, which placed more value in knowledge derived from observation and experience than from tradition and authority.
The acceptance of empirical rationality for understanding and solving social problems; the reliance on experience rather than authority for one’s source of knowledge and the allowance of social action and social reform as a legitimate concern of politicians, educators and philosophers.

From Dewey and others emerged a philosophy of education, the major principles of which found expressions in adult education.:

1. A broaden view of education that goes well beyond liberal education. Content. experience based approaches to instruction.
2. A shift from teacher as authority figure to teacher as facilitator of learning.
3. Education as an instrument of social action and social change.
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Mulcahy, R. 1991, Enhancing learning and thinking. New York, USA. Praeger Publishers.

18. p. 30-31 (Additive - Objective 3)

1. Students should learn thinking skills in order to live successfully now and in the future. The complexity and rapid change of today's society require that citizens have high levels of critical thinking in order to evaluate claims and situations, develop diverse creative thinking strategies, solve complex problems, and show a willingness to engage in cooperative and group activities to improve society.

2. Students of all ages and of varying abilities can improve their thinking skills. Much research has and is being undertaken on the improvement of thinking skills in students of all ages and at all ability levels. Many study and "learning-to-learn" skills are aspects of thinking skills. Becoming effective learners requires that all students develop their thinking skills to higher levels.

19. p. 58 (Additive - Objective 3)
Cognitive education teachers challenge correct responses as another way to help children focus on the thinking that led to a response. The children receive further assistance in providing logical evidence and generalizing strategies because there is an emphasis on rules in a cognitive education class. Children are encouraged to talk about how rules help them. They make rules in a variety of contexts, such as behavior, planning tasks, and social problem solving. Administrative and Teaching Staff attempts to be aware of the classroom rules for behavior, for planning a task, and for social problem solving. Consistency is stressed so that children are encouraged to follow the same rules in all contexts.

20. p. 59 (Additive - Objective 3)
In a cognitive education classroom there is an emphasis on generalization of processes. The mechanism of "bridging" involves the process whereby children are encouraged to think of different applications beyond their concrete experience in the classroom ( Haywood, 1987; Haywood et al., in press). In some classroom, children engage in a dialogue in which the teacher elicits applications of the principles to areas oftheir experience. They are also given important concrete opportunities to generalize cognitive functions to different content areas, to different activities, and to experiences with different people. All staff consciously attempt to bridge the cognitive functions to their area of involvement with the children.
________________________________________________________________Naidu, S. 2003, Learning & teaching with technology: Principles and practices. 120 Pentonville Road, London. UK. Kogan Page

21. p. 13-14 (Additive - Objective 3)
Modeling and simulation tools are gaining importance as a means to explore, comprehend, learn and communicate complex ideas, especially in distributed learning and work environments (Maier and Größler, 2000). Students are building and using simulations in both guided discovery and expository learning environments (Alessi, 2000).

Of particular interest is whether and when one learns by building simulations or by interacting with existing simulations (Spector, 2000). We focus on a particular modelling and simulation approach called 'system dynamics' (Forrester, 1985). The system dynamics community has focused primarily on learning by creating simulation models, although some researchers are becoming more sophisticated in recognizing a variety of different learning situations and requirements (Alessi, 2000; Gibbons, 2001; Spector, 2000).

22. p. 210 (Additive - Objective 3)

Assessment is most likely to enhance online learning when the design of assessment tasks is informed by principles of effective assessment. These principles have been well documented in a number of publications including, among others, the American Association for Higher Education Assessment
Forum's nine principles of good practice for assessing student learning, an assessment manifesto (Brown et al, 1996), the code of practice for assessment developed by the British Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (Race, 2001, pp 33-34) and steps to fair assessment (Suskie, 2000).

The following assessment principles are particularly pertinent to enhancing learning:
1. Aligning assessment with learning objectives and learning activities;
2. Using a range of assessment tasks;
3. Developing and communicating assessment criteria;
4. Using both formative and summative assessment;
5. Including peer and self-assessment; and
6. Providing prompt and constructive feedback.

Assessment needs to be carefully aligned with the learning objectives and learning activities, since assessment influences the learning approach that students adopt (Biggs, 1999). Aligning assessment with learning objectives and learning activities is a prerequisite for the design of effective online courses.

23. p. 31 (Additive - Objective 3)
The advantages are that peer-peer discussion and collaboration are effectively supported. This type of activity is suitable for networked learning environments where learners can collaborate in this discussion process, and it is consistent with evidence presented by van Joolingen (2000) that discovery behaviour displayed by learners may improve under the influence of collaboration.

The disadvantage is that without access to the underlying simulation model, learners are unable to develop deep causal understanding of a complex system.
As learners become more proficient in using the simulation, they require access to the underlying simulation model in order to advance their understanding (Davidsen and Spector, 1997; Spector and Davidsen, 1997).
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Pompper, D. 2006. Toward a 'relationship-centered' approach to student retention in higher education.. Public relations quarterly. 51. 2. 29+

24. p. 9. (Variant - Objective # 3.)

Understanding relationships between non-traditional students and their college are vital to the institution of higher education, in general, and technical colleges, in particular.

Non-traditional students have unique learning styles and may not respond well to traditional teaching and assessment methods (Giles, 2002). I think only a certain percentage may not respond well to traditional teaching it's all dependant on their educational foundation.

25. (Additive - Objective # 4.)

Education scholars have framed some remedies as "student-centered" because institutions have probed variables affecting students' ability to persist through graduation. Other scholars have framed remedies as "institution-centered" approaches - The current study sought to blend both perspectives by advancing a “relationship-centered" approach to students' persistence through graduation.

26. (Additive - Objective # 4.)
Tinto (1987) cautioned, however, against generalizability of student attrition research results because patterns underlying college persistence may vary by type of institution, environment, and composition of the student body.
The current study was designed to evaluate relationships between a small north Florida technical college and its key publics for the purpose of advancing a "relationship-centered" approach to student persistence and discovering specific communication strategies that may be used in nontraditional college student retention programs.
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Quinn, F.M. 2000, The principles and practice of nurse education. 27 Bath Road, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, GL53 7TH. United Kingdom.. Nelson Thornes

27. p. 57 (Additive - Objective 5.)

The different assumptions are outlines for pedagogy and andragogy Knowles then argues that traditional education conditions the learner to react to teacher stimuli and this reactive learning does not equip the learner with the skills for lifelong learning. But it was argued that the Pedagogy and andragogy should be seen as parallel, rather than two opposing models and Knowles acknowledges that both may be appropriate for both children and adults depending on the given circumstances.

28. p. 57 (Additive - Objective 5.)
Models are based on different assumptions about the learner on six dimensions:

1. The learner’s need to know
2. The learner’s self concept
3. The role of the learner’s experience
4. The learner’s readiness to learn
5. The learner orientation to learning
6. the learner’s motivation.

29. p. 56 (Additive - Objective 5)

In other words the teacher becomes another learning resource for the learner. To be able to perform their role satisfactorily, teachers must fully understand themselves and be flexible in their approach to teaching. Rogers’ approach encourages active involvement by the student in learning and this can be achieved by inclusion of strategies such as project work, practical and field based studies.

Singh, A.A.; Urbano, A; Haston, M.;McMahon, E. 2010. The school counselor's strategies for social justice change: A grounded theory of what works in the real world. Professional school counseling. 13. 3. 135+

30. (Variant - Objective # 3.)
We identified seven overarching strategies that participants used as social justice advocates enacting change in their school communities (see Figure 1). These strategies included (a) using political savvy to navigate power structures, (b) consciousness raising, (c) initiating difficult dialogues, (d) building intentional relationships, (e) teaching students self-advocacy skills, (f) using data for marketing, and (g) educating others about the school counselor role of advocate.

31. (Additive - Objective # 5.)
In a qualitative study evaluating school counselors' advocacy training, Pennymon (2005) examined events that either facilitated or hindered counselors' social justice learning. Additional findings indicated that a graduate program that did not infuse advocacy into its philosophy, mission statement, and training model hampered advocacy preparation.

32. (Additive - Objective # 5.)

Grounded theory research designs in school counseling have proven useful in describing how school counselors implement comprehensive school counseling programs, as well as how school counselors are perceived by school administrators. We discuss two exemplar grounded theory studies in order to demonstrate the utility of a grounded theory approach in school counseling research.
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Tight, M. 2002, Key concepts in adult education and training. 11 New Fetter Lane, London ECAP 4EE. RoutledgeFalmer

33. p.# 41. (Variant- Objective #2)
There are other theoretical objections to the idea of lifelong education, in addition to its lack of precision (Bagnall 1990, 2000).

Some writers have noted the way in which its proponents tend to equate education with learning, making little distinction between different forms or levels (Lawson 1982). Others have argued that the concept adds little to the notion of adult education. (Wain 1993). Ignorance in most writing about lifelong education dies appear significant: “Without real teachers, given real resources to empower students, lifelong learning will remain a slogan, a catchphrase, a substitute for real action.” (Elliott 1999)

34. p. 49. (Variant - Objective 1)

A learning society would be one in which all citizens acuire a high quality general education, appropriate vocational training and a job. A learning society would combine excellence with equity and would equip all its citizens with the knowledge, understanding and skills to ensure national economic prosperity.

35. p. 38. (Additive - Objective # 2)
The globalization of adult education and training:
The (perception of the) increasing pace of economic, social and technological change on a global scale; the belief that existing education and training practices and provision were inadequate to cope; and the conviction that educational opportunities should be available to all.

Summary of Developmental Readings for
Philosophy of Education Objectives

1. Total number of entries - 35 sources
2. Total number of books - 9
3. Total number of journals - 3
4. Number of entries that were additive - 29
5. Number of entries that were variant - 6