...decrease in the purchasing power of the currency. That is, when the general level of prices rises, each monetary unit buys fewer goods and services. The effect of inflation is not distributed evenly, and as a consequence there are hidden costs to some and benefits to others from this decrease in purchasing power. For example, with inflation lenders or depositors who are paid a fixed rate of interest on loans or deposits will lose purchasing power from their interest earnings, while their borrowers benefit. Individuals or institutions with cash assets will experience a decline in the purchasing power of their holdings. Increases in payments to workers and pensioners often lag behind inflation, especially for those with fixed payments. High or unpredictable inflation rates are regarded as harmful to an overall economy. They add inefficiencies in the market, and make it difficult for companies to budget or plan long-term. Inflation can act as a drag on productivity as companies are forced to shift resources away from products and services in order to focus on profit and losses from currency inflation.Uncertainty about the future purchasing power of money discourages investment and saving. And inflation can impose hidden tax increases, as inflated earnings push taxpayers into higher income tax rates. With high inflation, purchasing power is redistributed from those on fixed incomes such as pensioners towards those with variable incomes whose earnings may better keep pace with...
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...The exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another. A fall in the value of the pound is known as a depreciation and affects both the level of aggregate demand and the costs of production for firms in the UK economy. //One way in which a fall in the exchange rate can be beneficial for the UK economy is that it “should help UK exporters whose goods will be cheaper overseas”. An UK exports are priced in Sterling, and when Sterling can be purchased more cheaply, this makes our goods more affordable. An increased demand for UK exports is an injection into the UK economy and would serve to boost aggregate demand, enabling UK firms to make use of any spare capacity in order to increase output. This would also lead to a higher derived demand for resources, including labour, thus reducing unemployment. //A second effect of the depreciation on aggregate demand occurs because UK imports would become more expensive due to the fall in the purchasing power of Sterling. This should lead to reduced demand for imports and a reduction in the leakages from the UK circular flow of income. Overall, then, a fall in the exchange rate should boost exports and reduce imports and hence support aggregate demand and economic growth, as shown in the diagram. ///D A fall in the exchange rate could support economic growth by boosting AD I A negative effect of a fall in the exchange rate is that it may “add to inflationary pressures”. This is for two reasons. Firstly, the increase in aggregate...
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...whether to join European Monetary Union; however, the eagerness with which new member states join is paralleled by the resistance of several holdouts to adoption of the common currency. With the unprecedented growth rate of the Euro-zone over the past decade and the number of nations currently making the required policy adjustments, core members need to be aware of the motivating factors fueling the growth in the number of new member states. The European Union is experiencing an adverse selection scenario in which nations seeking increased stability are willing to make the sacrifices that membership entails while the redistributive effect of wealth from existing to new relatively poorer member states is an implicit benefit of the current system. When Paul Henri Spaak of Belgium, Christian Pineau of France, Joseph Luns of the Netherlands, Antonion Segni from Italy, Joseph Bech from Luxemburg, and Konrad Adenauer from the Republic of Germany signed the Treaty of Rome in 1957 creating the European Economic Community(EEC), their long-term objective was the creation of a union bound by political integration with a market between members free from traditional barriers to trade. It was not until the late 1970’s the formal movement towards the monetary integration which led to the establishment of the European Currency Unit began to gain traction within the Union which had grown to include the United Kingdom, Ireland and Denmark. In December of...
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...Research on the currency of Bangladesh | | GROUP MEMBERS:IFTESHAM ARA JAHAN 082604030FARIHA NOWSHIN HAQUE 1020276030MINHAZUR RAHMAN 081314030MUSA HABIB KISHAN 0930442030NUSRAT MINALLAH SHOSHI 0910283030SIDRATUL MUNTAHA KHAN 0920517530 | Table of Contents Analysis of Bangladeshi Taka (BDT) against US Dollar($) 3 Factors that influences BDT 5 Analysis of Macroeconomic variables 7 Income level 7 Fig: Income receipts of Bangladesh from 2005-2012in US dollar 8 Income payments (US dollar) in Bangladesh 8 Effects of inflation on income 9 Effects of interest rates on income level: 11 Theory of Interest Rate Parity and BDT 12 Theory of Purchasing Power Parity 14 Theory of International Fisher Effect against BDT 16 Regulations on foreign currency transfers/remittances 16 Analysis of investment opportunity for US-based MNC 17 Analysis of Bangladeshi Taka (BDT) against US Dollar ($) Exchange rates play a vital role in a country's level of trade. This is critical to almost every free market-oriented economy in the world. Numerous factors such as inflation, interest rates, current-account/trade balance, public (government) debt and political environment determine exchange rates and all are related to the trading relationship between any two countries. The exchange rate, measured as a number of units of local currency per unit of foreign currency, is the price of the foreign currency in terms...
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...maximize their returns for the risks borne by the lender. Interest rates (adjusted for expected inflation and other risks) serve as market signals of these rates of return. Although returns will differ across industries, the economy also has a natural rate of interest that depends on those factors that help to determine its long-run average rate of growth, such as the nation's saving and investment rates.4 During times when economic activity weakens, monetary policy can push its interest rate target (adjusted for inflation) temporarily below the economy's natural rate, which lowers the real cost of borrowing. This is sometimes known as "leaning against the wind." 5 To most economists, the primary benefit of low interest rates is its simulative effect on economic activity. By reducing interest rates, the Fed can help spur business spending on capital goods—which also helps the economy's long-term performance—and can help spur household expenditures on homes or consumer durables like automobiles.6 For example, home sales are generally higher when mortgage rates are 5 percent than if they are 10 percent. A second benefit of low interest rates is improving bank balance sheets and banks' capacity to lend. During the financial crisis, many banks, particularly some of the largest banks, were found to be undercapitalized, which limited their ability to make loans during the initial stages of the recovery. By keeping short-term interest rates low, the Fed helps recapitalize the banking system...
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...of ownership it’s called a direct investment with amount of 48.3 billion in 2012. * Portfolio investment: it’s all the investing in shares and bonds, and all the interest a dividends received from it concern to be in/out flow to the country, which it increased to 118.8 in 2012. * Other investment: includes net government borrowing from foreigners, and short-term. * Official reserve: the government used of gold and currencies held by the bank 2- Current account: keeping a record of all transaction in goods and services in and out of UK called current account which it’s was a deficit with over 59.8 billion in 2012. Which includes: * Trade in goods: in the oil section for in 2012 UK has been a net exporter for it. However, UK always import goods then it export which made it a trade deficit of 12.56 (-) billion in 2012. * Trade in services: it’s what the country provide for their people such as insurance and finance, with an 8.709 billion in the financial division which makes it surplus (+) in 2012. * Investment income: it’s all the earning comes as interest earned by investing in other investment, profit earned by investing in a business, dividend earned from invest shares in a business, which it was deficit (-) 33.9 billion in 2012. * Transfer: it has two section...
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...through monetary measures like bank rate policy, open market operations, etc or through fiscal measures like higher taxation, reduction in public expenditure, etc. Deflation would make our items cheaper in foreign market resulting a rise in our exports. At the same time the demands for imports fall due to higher taxation and reduced income. This would built a favourable atmosphere in the balance of payment position. However Deflation can be successful when the exchange rate remains fixed. 2. Exchange Depreciation Exchange depreciation means decline in the rate of exchange of domestic currency in terms of foreign currency. This device implies that a country has adopted a flexible exchange rate policy. Suppose the rate of exchange between Indian rupee and US dollar is $1 = Rs. 40. If India experiences an adverse balance of payments with regard to U.S.A, the Indian demand for US dollar will rise. The price of dollar in terms of rupee will rise. Hence, dollar will appreciate in external value and rupee will depreciate in external value. The new rate of exchange may be say $1 = Rs. 50. This means 25% exchange depreciation of the Indian currency. Exchange depreciation will stimulate exports and...
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...2014 Hong Kong Accounting Standard 21 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates HKAS 21 COPYRIGHT © Copyright 2014 Hong Kong Institute of Certified Public Accountants This Hong Kong Financial Reporting Standard contains IFRS Foundation copyright material. Reproduction within Hong Kong in unaltered form (retaining this notice) is permitted for personal and non-commercial use subject to the inclusion of an acknowledgment of the source. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights for commercial purposes within Hong Kong should be addressed to the Director, Finance and Operation, Hong Kong Institute of Certified Public Accountants, 37/F., Wu Chung House, 213 Queen's Road East, Wanchai, Hong Kong. All rights in this material outside of Hong Kong are reserved by IFRS Foundation. Reproduction of Hong Kong Financial Reporting Standards outside of Hong Kong in unaltered form (retaining this notice) is permitted for personal and non-commercial use only. Further information and requests for authorisation to reproduce for commercial purposes outside Hong Kong should be addressed to the IFRS Foundation at www.ifrs.org. Further details of the copyright notice form IFRS Foundation is available at http://app1.hkicpa.org.hk/ebook/copyright-notice.pdf © Copyright 2 HKAS 21 (July 2012May 2014) CONTENTS from paragraph INTRODUCTION IN1 HONG KONG ACCOUNTING STANDARD 21 THE EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN FOREIGN EXCHANGE RATES OBJECTIVE ...
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...international currency reserves, debt, and risk. Learning Materials Open Economy Macroeconomics: Exchange Rates, Balance of Payments and Policy Exchange-Rate Systems With some notable exceptions, most countries in the world have their own currency. Consequently, foreign exchange markets have developed to allow individuals, businesses, governments and other institutions to be able to make payment and receive payment across borders. Each country decides on an exchange rate system, whether they will set their exchange value of their currency administratively, allow markets to determine it, or some combination of those two approaches. Both macroeconomic and microeconomic forces influence the price of each currency in terms of another currency, its exchange rate. Exchange-rate systems include fixed, freely floating, managed floating, fixed peg, crawling-peg currency board, and dollarization. The United States, European Union, United Kingdom and Japan follow managed floating systems. Currency Boards and Monetary Policy Developing countries and small countries with large international sectors are more likely to use fixed systems, peg systems, or dollarization. These systems assist such countries in stabilizing their currencies, which tend to be weak. Maintaining stability in both prices of imports and exports is a primary goal for countries with large international sectors. Under dollarization, a country will adopt and use the United States dollar rather than their own currency. Countries...
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...and the different capacities of the worldwide governments involved imply the necessity to coordinate the stimulus plans in order to yield better and quicker benefits that will help out the countries with lower abilities (free-rider externalities effect). By analyzing the situation from 2008 to end 2010, it appears that the recovery is on track but risks and uncertainty remain. The next move then is to consolidate and create an adequate environment for balanced and sustained economic growth, fiscal sustainability and financial stability on a worldwide level. Using short term fiscal policies, the governments should first increase their credibility and consolidate their budgets by employing fiscal rules. Second, the exit from the exceptional fiscal policies used should be well timed to a strong growth or delayed if conditions are still weak: “difference between US - Europe vs. Japan”. Third, the fiscal policies used in developed countries will generate capital inflows towards emerging countries. These inflows will boost real-estate sector, increase the value of the stock market, and strengthen the local currency which will affect their competitiveness on the international trade level and might create a resilience to let the currency appreciate. If this were to happen, they might suffer counter measures from their trading partners. By taking...
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...Economics GM 545 Dunya Alaasemi Dalaasemi@yahoo.com Chapter 15, Question 14 According to Ott (2008), “National income is the total market value of production in a country’s economy during a year. It can be measured alternatively and equivalently in three ways: The value of expenditures, the value of inputs used in production and the sum of value added at each level of production” It is a system employed to account for and document economic changes. A national income account system is employed to account for and record economic changes. Investopedia (2012) stated that it provides economists and statisticians with detailed information that can be used to track the health of an economy and to forecast future growth and development. Although national income accounting is not an exact science, it provides useful insight into how well an economy is functioning, and where monies are being generated and spent. The following are some of the metrics calculated by using national income accounting include gross domestic product (GDP), gross national product (GNP) and gross national income (GNI). Ott (2008) found that using these “Statistics as an indicator of standard of living can be erroneous as the result of multiple inaccuracies or conclusions drawing from the data”. Therefore, as indicated in Econport (2006) handbook the following are the limitations of the national income accounts: * Errors in Measurement: Black Market and underground activities are not included when calculating...
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...monetary transactions between a country and the rest of the world.[1] These transactions include payments for the country's exports and imports of goods, services, financial capital, and financial transfers. The BOP accounts summarize international transactions for a specific period, usually a year, and are prepared in a single currency, typically the domestic currency for the country concerned. Sources of funds for a nation, such as exports or the receipts ofloans and investments, are recorded as positive or surplus items. Uses of funds, such as for imports or to invest in foreign countries, are recorded as negative or deficit items. When all components of the BOP accounts are included they must sum to zero with no overall surplus or deficit. For example, if a country is importing more than it exports, its trade balance will be in deficit, but the shortfall will have to be counterbalanced in other ways – such as by funds earned from its foreign investments, by running down central bank reserves or by receiving loans from other countries. While the overall BOP accounts will always balance when all types of payments are included, imbalances are possible on individual elements of the BOP, such as the current account, the capital account excluding the central bank's reserve account, or the sum of the two. Imbalances in the latter sum can result in surplus countries accumulating wealth, while deficit nations become increasingly indebted. The term "balance of payments" often refers to this...
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...Economics Project Effect of Inflation on Household Budget Submitted by- Chander Prabh Jain (14109035) Vasu Singla (14109050) Vikrant Das (14109007) Arpit Dhiman (14109006) Dhruva Gupta (14109010) Branch-Production Contents Pg 3…………………………………………………………….Abstract Pg 4……………………………………………………………..What is inflation? Pg 4 – 6………………………………………………………….Types of inflation Pg 6 -7 ………………………………………………………….Causes of inflation Pg 8………………………………Measurement of inflation and issues encountered Pg 10-11……………………………………………………………Factors affecting demand Pg12 - 13……………………………………………………………..Factors affecting supply Pg 14-15………………………………………How Can Government Control Inflation? Pg 16-19…………………………………………………Effect of inflation on various sectors Pg20-21…………………………………………………………..Literature review Pg22-23………………………………………………Needs, Objectives and Methodology Pg24……………………………………………………………...
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...international business promises improved quality of life and a better society leading to a more peaceful world. Most people are likely, on individual levels, to become involved with international business corporations during their careers. Manufacturing companies, and also service companies like banks, consulting firms or insurance are going global. In an era of open borders, niche marketing, instant communications and free ways of reaching millions of people, huge opportunity emerges for individuals to enter the international business arena. International business offers companies new markets. Since the mid-20th century, the growth of international trade and investment has been substantially larger than the growth of domestic economies. The combination of domestic and international business presents more opportunities for expansion, growth and income than domestic business alone. International business generates the flow of ideas, services and capital across the world. International business also offers consumers new options. It enables the acquisition of a wider variety of products, in terms of both quality and quantity and at reduced prices through international competition. International business facilitates the movement of factors of production, i.e. labour and capital and provides challenging employment opportunities to individuals with professional and entrepreneurial skills. However, international business does not benefit all in the same way. It brings benefits and...
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...Block IV MACROECONOMICS – II UNIT 17 Inflation 1-14 UNIT 18 Banking and Money Supply 15-31 UNIT 19 International Trade and Balance of Payments 32-50 UNIT 20 Economic Indicators 51-62 UNIT 21 Business Cycles 63-71 UNIT 22 Economic Growth, Development and Planning 72-84 Economics for Managers Expert Committee Dr. J. Mahender Reddy Vice Chancellor IFHE (Deemed to be University) Hyderabad Prof. Y. K. Bhushan Vice Chancellor IU, Meghalaya Prof. Loveraj Takru Director, IBS Dehradun IU, Dehradun Course Preparation Team Prof. Ramalingam Meenakshisundaram IFHE (Deemed to be University) Hyderabad Ms. Pushpanjali Mikkilineni IFHE (Deemed to be University) Hyderabad Mr. Pijus Kanti Bhuin IU, Sikkim Ms. Preetaq Dutta Rai IU, Jharkhand Ranchi Prof. S S George Director, ICMR IFHE (Deemed to be University) Hyderabad Dr. O. P. Gupta Vice Chancellor IU, Nagaland Prof. D. S. Rao Director, IBS, Hyderabad IFHE (Deemed to be University) Hyderabad Ms. Hadiya Faheem IFHE (Deemed to be University) Hyderabad Mr. Mrinmoy Bhattacharjee IU, Mizoram Aizawal Prof. Tarak Nath Shah IU, Dehradun Mr. Manoj Kumar De IU, Tripura Agartala © The ICFAI University Press, All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, used in a spreadsheet, or transmitted in any form or by any means – electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise – without prior permission in writing from The ICFAI University Press, Hyderabad. Ref. No. Eco Mgrs SLM – 09...
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