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Formas Organizacionales

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Dentro de los estudios del management comparativo encontramos, por ejemplo el realizado por Lammers y Hickson (citado por Scott, 1987), quienes distinguen tres formas organizacionales con base a aspectos culturales de diversos países:

Formas Organizacionales de las distintas culturas

Formas Organizacionales Características Países Tipo Latino Alta centralización, estratificación rígida, desigualdades pronunciadas,

Altos niveles de conflicto y áreas de incertidumbre Francia

Italia

España Anglosajón Mayor descentralización, menos rigidez en la estratificación y flexibilidad en las reglas Estados Unidos

Países escandinavos

Inglaterra Tipo tradicional Liderazgo paternalistas, reglas implícitas, falta de fronteras entre lo organizacional y no organizacional. Países en desarrollo (América Latina)

Fuente: Elaboración propia, con datos de Lammers y Hickson (1995)

Cada cultura representa una forma organizacional distinta, tomando como elemento determinante en las estrategias empresariales las manifestaciones de la cultura. En ese sentido Lammers y Hickson establecen la siguiente tipología (véase cuadro III):

1.- Tipo latino: en donde existe una alta centralización, estratificación rígida, desigualdades pronunciadas entre los niveles y conflicto en áreas de incertidumbre (Francia, Italia, España)

2.- Tipo Anglosajón: caracterizadas por un mayor grado de descentralización, menos rigidez en la estratificación y flexibilidad en la aplicación de reglas (Estados Unidos, países escandinavos e Inglaterra)

3.- Tipo Tradicional: en las que el liderazgo paternalista, reglas implícitas, falta de fronteras que separen los papeles organizacionales y no organizacionales están presentes (países en desarrollo)

Por su parte, Paúl Evans, Elizabeth Lank y Alinson Farquar (citados por Lisa Hoecklin, 1995), han identificado y descrito cuatro diferentes modelos organizacionales en cuanto al reclutamiento de personal y la forma de hacer carrera en las organizaciones, basados sobre diferencias culturales nacionales: Anglo, alemán, japonés y latino.

En el modelo anglosajón es valorado principalmente el individualismo, la competitividad y el cumplimiento de la norma al momento de seleccionar al personal; en tanto en el latino es más relevante como se adapta e interactúa con el grupo y las relaciones positivas con las personas en las más elevadas posiciones jerárquicas son lo que caracterizan el reclutamiento de personal y el poder hacer carrera en la compañía.

En las culturas latinas se pone mayor énfasis en la personalidad, comunicación y habilidades sociales en el seno de la organización, además que la entrada a las grandes compañías internacionales es también muy elitista y se toman en cuenta las cadenas interpersonales (relaciones internas); en contraste con la noción anglosajona de inteligencia, en donde prevalece la competitividad y para admitir a un nuevo recurso humano se valoran más los resultados del exámenes de inteligencia que la forma en que interactúa con el grupo o el jefe.

A su vez, la alemana –que incluye a suizos, holandeses y escandinavos--, cuyas organizaciones se enfocan más sobre la preparación del individuo para la realización de carreras funcionales. Ese tipo de organizaciones se enfocan más a preparar sus recursos humanos, ya que después de ser reclutados tendrán un tiempo de dos a tres años de entrenamiento, lo cual combinarán con su empleo en la compañía y se valora especialmente a aquellos con un intensivo entrenamiento. El grado más alto de muchas compañías alemanas es que se obtenga el título de doctor por parte de sus empleados (Evans, Lank y Farquar, 1995).

Por su parte, el modelo japonés –el cual emergió después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial—es altamente competitivo y su reclutamiento de personal está basado en una elite, procedente de las universidades de un mayor nivel. Las funciones que les son inicialmente asignadas pueden tener o no relación con sus estudios profesionales. En Toyota y Nissan los empleados recién llegados podrían estar durante unos pocos meses como vendedores de piso, pero en los primeros cuatro o cinco años el empleado habrá desarrollado una gran identidad y compromiso hacia la organización. Además, existe un alto grado de rotación de personal y las promociones se realizan cada cuatro o cinco años, de tal manera que los trabajadores que ingresan juntos a la organización son promovidos en forma conjunta.

Es importante reflexionar sobre la transferencia de modelos organizacionales, porque no es posible pasarlo con facilidad de una sociedad a otras. Por ejemplo, un estudio reciente utilizó las dimensiones de distancia del poder, para comparar las organizaciones mexicanas y las estadounidenses (citado por Hellriegel, Managing cultural differences between México and USA). A continuación se presentan algunas consideraciones, tomadas de ese estudio:

Jerarquía.- Las organizaciones mexicanas reflejan las estructuras jerárquicas de la Iglesia y el Gobierno. La mayor parte de las Organizaciones muestran una estructura burocrática con el poder en la cima. Los empleados por debajo de los niveles inferiores poseen poca autoridad. En México se recompensa a los trabajadores por la lealtad y seguimiento de las instrucciones de la persona a mando. En la actualidad Estados Unidos se caracteriza por una variación muy amplia con relación a los tipos de relaciones jerárquicas, aunque como promedio las organizaciones estadounidenses tienden a estructuras muy planas y en cierta forma menos burocráticas que las mexicanas.

Formalidad.- Los mexicanos se inclinan hacia una relación más distante entre los trabajadores y los gerentes que de una sociedad, habituada a la baja distancia del poder, como Estados Unidos. A pesar de esta necesidad de distancia y formalidad, los empleados mexicanos valoran las condiciones de trabajo en que los supervisores sean comprensivos. Admiran a los jefes que los tratan en forma cálida, pero digna.

Reglas y preceptos.- En las organizaciones mexicanas no se cumplen las reglas y preceptos formales a menos de que éste presente alguien con autoridad. Debido a la persona de que se trata, es más probable que se obedezcan a los gerentes que a una regla. Sin un vínculo emocional fuerte entre las personas se presenta la tendencia a no tomar en consideración las reglas. Por el contrario, los directivos estadounidenses creen que las reglas establecen un sistema justo que otorga importancia a la equidad y por lo tanto deben aplicarse en forma impersonal (Harris y Morán, 1995).

Estos trabajos consideran en cierta manera a la cultura organizacional como dependiente de la cultura social más amplia. Estas investigaciones sobre subculturas organizacionales han hecho referencia a aspectos sociales, como la profesión y otros elementos pertenecientes al contexto de las organizaciones.

En particular, la teoría neoinstitucionalista ha adoptado esta característica (DiMaggio Y Powell, 1983; Meyer y Rowan, 1977). Según esta teoría, existen presiones sociales, para adherirse a creencias convencionales, lo que influye en que la estructura y procesos organizacionales reflejen las normas, valores, ideologías institucionalizadas en el contexto de la organización (Scott, 1987).

Los llamados neoinstitucionalistas aseguran que las organizaciones que incorporan los elementos del contexto institucional o cultural, es decir, las reglas, creencias, ideologías y requerimientos sociales, adquieren apoyo y legitimidad; por lo tanto se mantienen con vida.

En este sentido algunos investigadores han traspasado las fronteras de una organización y han estudiado sectores industriales, es decir, grupos de organizaciones de un mismo giro. En ese sentido, se pueden mencionar el estudio de Phillips (1994), como ejemplo de las organizaciones industriales y el de Michell y Willower (1992) y Rowan (1982) en las organizaciones educativas.

El estudio de Phillips (1994) presentó evidencias de la existencia de una cultura a nivel de industria, es decir, una cultura con elementos homogéneos, manifestada por un grupo de organizaciones que pertenecían a la misma actividad económica. Esta investigadora trabajó con una muestra de museos de bellas artes y las vitivinícolas que se encontraban en el estado de California, en Estados Unidos y encontró que los supuestos culturales existentes en las dos industrias eran sustancialmente diferentes, a pesar de estar localizadas en la misma área geográfica y de que los miembros de las organizaciones de la misma industria compartían supuestos culturales comunes.

Vale la pena reflexionar qué tan posible es transferir modelos organizacionales de países desarrollados a países en vías de desarrollo y las consecuencias que tendría para la organización. ¿Qué pasa cuando transferimos un modelo organizacional de un país a otro, se adapta tal cual o toma nuevas formas?. En su investigación de Cultura organizacional empresas México-americanas (2004), Gámez ofrece una respuesta a esa pregunta en el sentido de que se construye una cultura organizacional híbrida.

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