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Fraud Accounting

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BAB I
PENDAHULUAN
1.1 Latar Belakang Masalah
Kecurangan (fraud) merupakan tindakan melawan hukum yang merugikan suatu entitas dan menguntungkan pelakunya. Kecurangan (fraud) bukan saja dapat merugikan suatu entitas tetapi juga dapat mengurangi reputasi suatu entitas. Ada berbagai macam bentuk kecurangan (fraud) yang terjadi di Indonesia. Salah satunya adalah korupsi.
Kasus tindak pidana korupsi merupakan permasalahan besar di Indonesia yang menimbulkan kerugian negara yang sangat besar dan berpengaruh kepada turunnya kualitas kehidupan masyarakat maupun mengganggu stabilitas ekonomi. Kasus tindak pidana korupsi di Indonesia sudah banyak terjadi, dan kasus yang muncul tidaklah sedikit. Hal ini diperkuat dengan adanya artikel pada kompas pada tanggal 18 Agustus 2014 yang menyatakan bahwa : Berdasarkan data yang dirilis Indonesia Corruption Watch (ICW), Minggu (17/8), jumlah kasus korupsi cenderung menurun selama 2010-2012, tetapi kembali meningkat pada 2013-2014.
Pada 2010, jumlah kasus korupsi yang disidik kejaksaan, kepolisian, dan Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi (KPK) mencapai 448 kasus. Pada 2011, jumlahnya menurun menjadi 436 kasus dan menurun lagi pada 2012 menjadi 402 kasus.
Namun, pada 2013, jumlahnya naik signifikan menjadi 560 kasus. Pada 2014, jumlah kasus korupsi diperkirakan akan meningkat lagi mengingat selama semester I-2014 jumlahnya sudah mencapai 308 kasus.

Sedangkan berdasarkan data yang diperoleh dari BPS, kasus korupsi juga semakin banyak terjadi di Indonesia. Tabel 1.1 menunjukkan bahwa pengaduan atas kasus korupsi di Indonesia terus mengalami peningkatan dari mulai tahun 2010 hingga tahun 2013. Hal ini semakin memperkuat pernyataan bahwa di Indonesia kasus korupsi telah banyak terjadi, dan bukannya semakin menurun justru kasus korupsi di Indonesia justru semakin meningkat.
Tabel 1.1
Jumlah Pengaduan Masyarakat tentang Tindak Pidana Korupsi Berdasarkan Provinsi Tahun 2009 - 2013

Sumber : Badan Pusat Statistik
Kasus kerugian negara/daerah/perusahaan yang terjadi di Indonesia pada semester 1 tahun 2014 sesuai dengan Ikhtisar Hasil Pemeriksaan Semester I Tahun 2014 terdapat sebanyak 300 kasus senilai Rp 491.751,33 juta, diantaranya terdapat indikasi kerugian negara sebanyak 79 kasus senilai Rp 91.345,06 juta. Persentase kasus kerugian negara/daerah/perusahaan yang banyak terjadi disajikan dalam Grafik 1.1.
Grafik 1.1
Persentase Kasus Kerugian Negara/Daerah/Perusahaan

Sumber : Ikhtisar Hasil Pemeriksaan Badan Pemeriksaan Keuangan, September 2014
Selain menghitung kerugian keuangan negara yang bersifat tangible, penelitian ini juga bertujuan untuk dapat mengetahui bagaimana BPK menghitung kerugian keuangan negara yang bersifat potensial. Menghitung kerugian keuangan negara yang bersifat potensial berarti menghitung suatu potensi kerugian yang berarti kerugian keuangan negara baru akan terjadi di masa mendatang. Tentunya sangat dibutuhkan untuk mengetahui bagaimana cara menghitung dan metode penghitungan seperti apa yang tepat digunakan untuk menghitung kerugian negara yang bersifat potensial tersebut.
Kasus yang berupa potensi kerugian negara di Indonesia tidaklah sedikit. Hal ini dibuktikan dengan hasil pemeriksaan BPK pada Ikhtisar Hasil Pemeriksaan (IHSP) Semester I Tahun 2014. Menurut IHSP Semester I Tahun 2014, kasus potensi kerugian negara/daerah/perusahaan yang terjadi di Indonesia pada Semester I Tahun 2014 terdapat sebanyak 120 kasus senilai Rp 7.446.765,13 juta. Persentase kasus potensi kerugian negara/daerah/perusahaan yang banyak terjadi disajikan dalam Grafik 1.2.
Grafik 1.2
Persentase Kasus Potensi Kerugian Negara/Daerah/Perusahaan

Sumber : Ikhtisar Hasil Pemeriksaan Badan Pemeriksaan Keuangan, September 2014
Dilihat dari banyak kasus kecurangan (fraud) seperti korupsi yang terjadi saat ini di Indonesia bukan hanyak semakin banyak tetapi juga sudah semakin kompleks. Penyalahgunaan asset dan manipulasi laporan keuangan yang sulit atau bahkan tidak bisa di deteksi oleh proses audit keuangan biasa. Oleh karena itu, diperlukan berbagai pihak yang berwenang seperti kejaksaan, Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi (KPK), BPK dan BPKP dalam menekan dan mengatasi kasus tindak pidana korupsi agar semakin berkurang. Dalam melakukan kegiatan penekanan serta pengatasan atas kasus tindak pidana korupsi, tentunya para pihak yang bersangkutan harus dapat mengerti betul tentang berbagai macam tindak kecurangan yang mungkin terjadi. Auditor investigatif merupakan salah satu profesi yang dituntut untuk dapat mengerti kasus kecurangan yang dapat terjadi. Hal ini dikarenakan para auditor investigatif bertugas untuk mendeteksi kecurangan – kecurangan yang mungkin dan dapat terjadi. Oleh karena itu, disiplin ilmu akuntansi dituntut untuk dapat berubah dan mengikuti tren masalah terkini terutama yang terkait dengan masalah kecurangan (fraud) yang berupa kasus tindak pidana korupsi.
Kasus tindak pidana korupsi memiliki dampak yang sangat besar bagi Indonesia. Selain menurunkan kualitas hidup masyarakat serta mengganggu stabilitas ekonomi yang terjadi Indonesia. Korupsi juga mengakibatkan munculnya kerugian negara bagi Indonesia. Kerugian negara yang diakibatkan oleh kasus tindak pidana korupsi dapat dikatakan sangatlah banyak apabila dilihat dari jumlah kasus korupsi yang banyak terjadi di Indonesia.
Sesuai dengan Pasal 2 ayat (1) Undang-Undang Nomor 31 Tahun 1999 tentang Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Korupsi bahwa tindak pidana korupsi meliputi setiap orang yang secara melawan hukum melakukan perbuatan memperkaya diri sendiri atau orang lain atau suatu korporasi yang dapat merugikan keuangan negara atau perekonomian negara.
Pengertian kerugian negara menurut Pasal 1 ayat 22 Undang-Undang Nomor 1 Tahun 2004 tentang Perbendaharaan Negara yang dimaksud dengan kerugian negara atau daerah adalah kekurangan uang, surat berharga dan barang yang nyata dan pasti jumlahnya sebagai akibat perbuatan melawan hukum baik sengaja maupun lalai.
Dari kedua pengertian kerugian negara menurut Pasal 2 ayat 1 Undang-Undang Nomor 31 Tahun 1999 dan Pasal 1 ayat 22 Undang-Undang Nomor 1 Tahun 2004 maka dapat disimpulkan bahwa terdapat dua jenis kerugian negara yaitu kerugian negara yang sifatnya nyata atau tangible dan pasti jumlahnya serta kerugian negara yang sifatnya dapat merugikan keuangan negara atau keuangan negara. Kata dapat merugikan keuangan negara memiliki arti bahwa suatu tindakan yang berpotensi dapat merugikan keuangan negara sudah termasuk ke dalam tindakan korupsi. Hal ini berarti segala tindakan persiapan yang dapat merugikan keuangan negara nantinya sudah termasuk ke dalam tindak pidana korupsi. Meskipun belum ada kerugian keuangan negara yang riil terjadi, akan tetapi telah terdapat potensi kerugian negara yang akan timbul.
Dalam praktik sering terjadi perbedaan mengenai besarnya kerugian negara mengingat adanya beberapa cara atau metode dalam menghitung kerugian negara. Dilihat dari beberapa definisi kerugian negara menurut Undang-Undang, kerugian negara tidak hanya menyangkut berkurangnya uang atau aset negara tetapi juga berkaitan dengan timbulnya kewajiban negara yang seharusnya tidak ada. Pada praktiknya, penentuan kerugian negara lebih menekankan kepada kerugian tangible dan tidak membahas kerugian yang sifatnya sebagai potensi kerugian di masa mendatang .
Padahal di Indonesia sendiri kasus korupsi yang berupa potensi kerugian negara sudah banyak terjadi. Menurut Sutianto (2014) pada awal tahun 2014 saja, BPK telah menemukan potensi kerugian negara sebesar Rp 9,24 triliun di semester-II tahun 2013. Hal ini menandakan bahwa kasus kerugian negara yang bersifat potensial perlu dipelajari serta diselidiki lebih dalam lagi. Bukan hanya yang mengakibatkan kerugian negara yang bersifat tangible saja yang termasuk kedalam kasus tindak pidana korupsi.
Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan (BPK) dan Badan Pengawasan Keuangan dan Pembangunan (BPKP) merupakan lembaga pemerintah yang memiliki wewenang untuk menilai atau menetapkan ada tidaknya kerugian keuangan negara. Hal ini berdasarkan UU BPK dan Keppres No. 103 Tahun 2001 tentang Kedudukan, Tugas, Fungsi, Kewenangan, Susunan Organisasi, dan Tata Kerja Lembaga Pemerintah Non Departemen.
Penelitian tentang penghitungan kerugian negara ataupun yang meneliti mengenai kerugian negara masih belum banyak dilakukan. Akan tetapi, penelitian yang meneliti tentang penghitungan kerugian akibat kasus kecurangan sudah banyak dilakukan. Penelitian yang dilakukan oleh Joseph Atta-Mensah (2004) menggunakan teknik harga opsi untuk menghitung serta menentukan kerugian akibat kasus kecurangan. Zaman and Rahim (2008) menyimpulkan bahwa tidak ada satu angka untuk mengukur korupsi secara memadai Button, Gee, and Brooks (2011) menyimpulkan bahwa metode penghitungan untuk mengukur besarnya kerugian akibat kasus kecurangan masih sangat sulit dan bahkan dapat dikatakan sulit untuk dilakukan. Akan tetapi, di Indonesia BPK mampu melakukan penghitungan tersebut. Penghitungan kerugian negara oleh BPK digunakan sebagai dasar bukti kasus tindak pidana korupsi di Indonesia. Oleh karena itu, fokus dari penelitian ini adalah untuk memahami metode penghitungan yang dilakukan oleh BPK dalam menentukan besarnya kerugian negara terutama yang berifat potensial di Indonesia.
Penghitungan kerugian negara tidak sekedar berkaitan dengan aspek teknik akuntansi. Penghitungan kerugian negara potensial sangat tergantung pada kemampuan auditor dalam memahami makna kerugian negara, memahami berbagai metode penghitungan kerugian negara dan menganalisis metode yang diyakini paling tepat untuk setiap kasus korupsi. Pemahaman sangat tergantung pada sudut pandang auditor. Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini diperlukan dengan pendekatan kualitatif untuk menggali makna, metode dan cara yang dilakukan dalam penghitungan kerugian negara. 1.2 Rumusan Masalah
BPK merupakan badan yang berwenang dan bertugas untuk menghitung dan menetapkan jumlah kerugian negara. Kerugian negara sesuai dengan Pasal 2 ayat (1) Undang-Undang Nomor 31 Tahun 1999 tentang Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Korupsi bahwa tindak pidana korupsi meliputi setiap orang yang secara melawan hukum melakukan perbuatan memperkaya diri sendiri atau orang lain atau suatu korporasi yang dapat merugikan keuangan negara atau perekonomian negara.
BPK sebagai badan yang bertugas menghitung kerugian negara tentunya memiliki metode-metode penghitungan akuntansi dalam menentukan kerugian negara. Dalam literatur terdapat beberapa metode yang dapat digunakan dalam penghitungan kerugian negara. Metode-metode tersebut yaitu : 1. Kerugian Total (Total Loss) 2. Kerugian Total dengan Penyesuaian 3. Kerugian Bersih (Net Loss) 4. Harga wajar 5. Biaya Kesempatan (Opportunity Cost) 6. Bunga (Interest)
Akan tetapi, metode-metode tersebut tidak dijelaskan secara detail bagaimana cara penghitungannya. Kerugian negara yang bersifat tangible lebih mudah untuk dilakukan penghitungannya karena berdasarkan kejadian atau transaksi di masa lalu. Sedangkan untuk kerugian negara yang bersifat potensial masih belum diketahui bagaimana metode penghitungannya.
Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini dilakukan untuk menjawab pertanyaan: 1. Bagaimana auditor investigatif memahami makna kerugian keuangan negara? 2. Bagaimana BPK memilih metode penghitungan akuntansi dalam menentukan kerugian keuangan negara akibat tindak pidana korupsi selama ini ? 3. Bagaimana BPK melakukan penghitungan kerugian negara apabila terdapat potensi kerugian keuangan negara di masa mendatang dan timbulnya kewajiban baru pada negara yang seharusnya tidak ada? 1.3 Tujuan dan Kegunaan Penelitian
Tujuan dari dilakukannya penelitian ini adalah: 1. Memahami lingkup makna kerugian keuangan negara dari pengertian auditor 2. Mengidentifikasi dan mendeskripsikan metode penghitungan yang dilakukan oleh BPK dalam menentukan kerugian keuangan negara akibat tindak pidana korupsi selama ini. 3. Mengidentfikasi dan mendeskripsikan metode penghitungan yang dilakukan oleh BPK dalam menentukan kerugian keuangan negara apabila kerugian keuangan negara berbentuk timbulnya potensi kerugian negara di masa mendatang dan timbulnya kewajiban baru pada negara yang seharusnya tidak ada. 4. Mencari model yang tepat dalam menentukan besarnya kerugian keuangan negara terutama kerugian negara yang bersifat potensial.
Penelitian ini juga diharapkan dapat memberikan kontribusi berupa manfaat sebagai berikut: 1. Membantu pengembangan ilmu Akuntansi Forensik di Indonesia 2. Sebagai dasar bagi Auditor Investgatif untuk menentukan besarnya kerugian keuangan negara. 1.4 Sistematika Penulisan BAB I : PENDAHULUAN Berisi latar belakang masalah, rumusan masalah penelitian yang diikuti dengan pertanyaan penelitian mendasar, tujuan dan kegunaan penelitian serta sistematika penulisan. Bab ini memberikan gambaran secara umum mengenai isi keseluruhan dari tulisan ini. BAB II : TINJAUAN PUSTAKA Berisi teori-teori yang digunakan sebagai landasan penelitian, penelitian penelitian terdahulu yang pernah melakukan penelitian sejenis, dan kerangka teoritis yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini. BAB III : METODE PENELITIAN Menjelaskan tentang desain penelitian, jenis dan sumber data, metode pengumpulan data, objek penelitian dan analisis data. Selain itu pada bab ini juga menjelaskan bahwa penelitian yang dilakukan menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif. BAB IV : PEMBAHASAN Berisi analisis mengenai informan dalam memahami pengertian dari kerugian negara serta bagaimana BPK melakukan penghitungan kerugian negara. Metode apa saja yang dapat digunakan untuk melakukan penghitungan kerugian negara. BAB V : KESIMPULAN dan SARAN
Bab ini berisi kesimpulan, implikasi keterbatasan dan saran bagi pengembangan penelitian selanjutnya.

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Small Business Accounting Fraud

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