Given the relative weakness of the 16th century Europe, how do we account for the fact that European nations came to dominate most of the world by the end of the 19th century?

In the 16th century, majority of the population in Europe was living in poverty. Europe paled in comparison to the great empires of the Ming, Ottoman and Mughal. Though Portuguese and Spanish represented Europe civilization to set sail and explore new lands in search of new settlements and viable trade routes, the Chinese empire lead an expedition of a massive scale larger than ever known earlier than that time with a different motive. Such expeditions imply these major empires could be suitable candidates for world domination. However, they became insignificant in the world politics arena due to internal declines and isolation.
Strong and impregnable as they seem, these great empires had their weaknesses and suffered downfalls due to inefficient government and inadequate resources. The Ottoman Empire has expanded beyond what its resources could sustain. Coupled with widespread corruption and incompetent leadership, the empire’s armies suffered and became vulnerable to its Christian and nomadic rivals. The Mughal empire leader Aurangzeb, expanded his empire in name of purifying Islam hence weakening alliances with Hindu princes and disrupted the already fragmented social order. With focused expansion of territory using obsolete armies and tactics, the empire was drained of its wealth and fell when civil unrest overtook the crown. The Ming Empire was somehow different. It was an empire with a well-developed industry and culture. The initial overseas expeditions were driven by curiosity. However, Ming was facing an imminent danger of aggression from neighbours. Hence resources were diverted to defense rather than for expansion. As a result, the Chinese became isolated and withdrawn. Above all, all three empires shared the same weaknesses of conservatism and complacency. None of these empires ever took the threat of expanding Europe seriously and instead were more indulged in securing their familiar worlds. Ming China with its abundance of resources was too arrogant due to their achievements in textile and culture. Consequently, all suffered under the inefficiencies of the monarchial leadership and complacency. Lacking foundational system of governing and widespread corruption, their expansion ventures failed and isolation behaviour brought about only ignorance and vulnerability to European exploitation later on. Hence by the 1500s, Europe was the only active expansionist and potential player in world politics.
Lacking competition, Europe underwent a different course. The 16th century Renaissance created intense probing and marked the beginning of capitalism. The social re-awakening lead to Reformation in which the Protestants challenged the Catholic Church, causing a shift in cultural patterns not found in other civilizations. Subsequently, the Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment and French Revolution rejuvenated the status quo in politics and technological advancements, which were not found elsewhere. Most importantly in the 16th century, the main contribution to Europe’s success was the emergence of an efficient nation-state organization. It originated from the French revolution (1789), partly inspired by the American Revolution. The earlier social reforms and new ideas of enlightenment weakened the powers of Catholic Church, aristocracy and monarchy. The ineffective monarchial organization gave way to rights and liberal movements which paved the way for the Nation-State model. Europe had developed a system to manage itself which granted it political strength.
With a new, efficient management, Europe’s social and economical order improved together. Newly learned technologies from China and Islamic Worlds and the Scientific Revolution laid foundation to making faster ocean-going ships and improvements in weaponry. European States recognize the lucrative profits of overseas trade from the Spanish and Portuguese achievements as means to become rich and rapidly adopted their capitalistic tactics, thus grew in importance in international trade. With extensive colonization in Africa and America made possible via efficient government, Europe had carved out own trading routes without relying on the other empires. Atlantic Slave Trade grew in importance, providing the needed manpower and markets for agricultural production and subsequently, the factory production. Europe re-shaped the world using its combined domineering commercial and political power that no other civilization could pre-empt or stop.
The geography of Europe was congested with several nation-states that were in constant rivalry. Hence, with strong desires to establish more colonies, increased trade revenue and resources would propagate more funds for supporting war and territorial expansion against continental neighbours. This mercantilism was in contrast to Chinese and Muslim Empires who paid no attention to need of balance between expansion and resources.
The improvements of food production, medicine and alchemy brought about by economic growth facilitated population expansion. Together with mercantilism, agricultural advancements, population growth initiated the Industrial Revolution. This revolution brought about rapid improvements in every sector of life, leading Europe in technology by early 19th century. Large scale emigration to settlements account for extensive European expansion beyond the shores of the Mediterranean Sea brought about by the steam engine. Naval military strength grew by leaps and bounds. The power gap became wider. Europe realized that they were far ahead of others in every aspect and hence became more arrogant. They justified their expansion in interest for all civilizations and to educate the rest of the world Christianity, resulting in White Man’s burden and the Yellow Peril. Mercantile Imperialism (1400-1850) became the New Imperialism (1800-1950). This extensive imperialism and capitalism quickly establish themselves as the basis of world politics and economy. Even independent powers like USA and Japan succumbed to it. The other empires were unwilling to accept new ideas, leaving Europe alone to shape the world it wanted.

In a holistic view, Europe had the right start. The nation-state government occupied the political inadequacies of monarchial leadership, facilitating overseas expansion. Together with social reform and scientific explorations, they strengthened themselves and became more aggressive with expansion. Mercantile Imperialism became the single driving motivation and was unstoppable. Industrialization further propagated naval military strength and hence by early 19th century, they were ahead in every aspect of politics, economy and military. Not only were they able to expand quickly and extensively throughout the globe which no other civilizations had ever did, they were surprisingly able to sustain and fortify their economic and military empires with their balanced emphasis of expansion and resource management. The whole idea contributing Europe’s dominance stemmed from the progression from efficient government, mercantilism to industrialization.

Bibliography

Readings
“World Civilisations, The Global Experience” Pages 548-549,616-618,633-634,679-683

Course Reader
“The Scientific Revolution” Steven Shapin Pages 1-8, 15

On the web http://www.marxism-made-simple.fsnet.co.uk/imperialism.htm - def of imperialism and stages of it http://www.marion.ohio-state.edu/fac/vsteffel/web182/Imp-1.html - types of imperialism and the periods http://www.britannia.com/history/euro/1/3_1.html - detailed history of Europe http://www2.sunysuffolk.edu/westn/hs-12_re.htm - helpful and insightful summaries of many significant events in modern history