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THE GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS AND DEVELOPMENT Implication for the Entrepreneurial Economy

Dunia mengalami krisis global di akhir tahun 2008. Namun apa dampak yang terjadi dua tahun kemudian? Beberapa kejadian seperti kejutan dari neagra berkembang, global financial architecture (GFA) karena banyak peraturan-peraturan di bidang keuangan diperbaiki turut mewarnai dampak dari krisis serta perubahan perilaku penguasa dan manajemen perusahaan.

A Brief History of the Crisis

Pada tahun 2007 terjadi lonjakan pertumbuhan dari mortgage loan di US. Peningkatan tersebut diiringi dengan peningkatan harga rumah dan semakin lemahnya aturan kehati-hatian dalam memberikan mortgage loan tersebut. Lender semakin berani memberikan pinjaman subprime tersebut karena investment bank membeli kredit tersebut dan menggabungkannya menjadi sebuah instrument keuangan yang dinamakan collateralized debt obligations (CDO). Kemudian investment bank menjual CDO tersebut kepada investor dengan peringkat AAA.

Permasalahan terjadi ketika terjadi gagal bayar oleh debitur mortage loan sehingga banyak sekali rumah yang disita dan suku bunga terus naik. Akibatnya CDO juga mengalami gagal bayar dan merugikan banyak investor. Akhirnya pada tahun 2008, banyak perusahaan keuangan yang ditutup dan dijual seperti Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac (mortgage lender terbesar) dan Lehman Brothers (salah satu investment bank terbesar).

Kejadian tersebut membuat harga rumah langsung menurun, harga minyak dunia meningkat, penurunan harga saham dan US mengalami resesi sehingga permintaan menurun. Ternyata krisis ini meluas ke berbagai negara di belahan dunia seperti eropa, afrika, asia dan amerika latin. Hal ini karena banyak yang menjadi investor dari CDO dan banyak negara-negara yang ekspor ke US tertunda karena penurunan permintaan. Rata-rata volume perdagangan dan GDP dunia mengalami penurunan tajam di tahun 2008-2009.
Re-assessing Global Development

Krisis 2008-2009 ini cukup mengejutkan dan tidak diprediksi sebelumnya mengingat kejadian ini berasal dari negara maju seperti US dan dampaknya sangat meluas. Oleh sebab itu dampak-dampak dari krisis ini di-assess dalam tiga hal berikut:

➢ The Surprising Origins of the Crisis

Seperti yang telah dijelaskan diatas bahwa krisis ini memang cukup mengejutkan karena dialami di US sebagai negara maju dan terjadi di sektor swasta atau entrepreneurial economy. Kenyataannya bahwa negara seperti US khususnya sektor swasta sangat well manage, well regulated dan world leader namun terjadi krisis yang tentunya hal ini membuat kejutan bagi dunia.

Setelah diteliti lebih lanjut, krisis ini terjadi karena ketidakseimbangan saving-consumption dan regulasi di sektor keuangan US. Khususnya dari segi regulasi, terjadinya pelemahan standar dan pengawasan sehingga banyak pihak yang berani mengambil resiko tinggi khusunya yang terjadi pada mortgage loan yang berlebihan. Pada saat itu juga banyak terjadi peningkatan “shadow banking” seperti spekulasi, subprime mortgage yang menbentuk CDO serta terjadi moral hazard dan perilaku investasi yang beresiko di pasar.

➢ The Surprising Resilience of Emerging and Developing Countries

Krisis yang diawali di US melebar sampai ke negara-negara lain di dunia. Namun yang menarik, krisis ini sepertinya tidak terlalu berdampak parah bagi negara-negara berkembang seperti di Asia, Amerika Latin dan beberapa negara di Afrika. Hal ini karena mereka sudah memulai pengembangan dan perbaikan manajemen makroekonomi yang lebih baik dari sebelumnya, sudah mempelajari dari pengalaman krisis tahun 1997-1998 khususnya di Asia dan peningkatan kualitas dari pemerintahan.

➢ Improving the Global Financial Architecture

Dengan adanya krisis yang cukup mengejutkan ini, maka penggalakan global financial architecture (GFA) mulai dilakukan. GFA merupakan pengaturan pemerintahan secara kolektif di tingkat internasional untuk menciptakan keefektifan sistem moneter dan keuangan global. Sebagai contoh misalnya setelah krisis tahun 1997-1998, Basel II untuk peningkatan proses supervise dan regulasi perbankan semakin diperketat. Penerapan GFA perlu mendapat dukungan dan tindakan dari:

• The Word Bank and the IMF (sebagai lembaga lending dan borrowing tingkat dunia perlu memperkuat fungsinya sebagai intermediasi. Salah satunya dengan pengetatan kebijakan dan aturan standar bagi negara-negara di dunia termasuk internal di organisasi tersebut. • Global Imbalance and Currency Wars (diperlukan koordinasi secara global khususnya berkaitan dengan currency management. Hal ini bertujuan untuk menghindari ketidakseimbangan antara saving dengan konsumsi, meningkatkan cadangan dan exchange rate yang lebih stabil. • Financial Regulation and Supervision (peningkatan peraturan dan pengawasan perbankan merupakan fokus utama di bidang keuangan setelah krisis terjadi. Juga diperlukan peningkatan akuntabilitas dan transparansi di sektor keuangan. Saat ini Basel III sudah mulai diterapkan secara internasional terkait tingkat modal bank dan berfokus kepada micro-prudential. • Illicit Financial Flows (merupakan hasil dari korupsi, tindakan criminal dan hasil dari bisnis yang legal menjadi illegal jika bertentangan dengan hukum yang berlaku. Banyak transaksi yang memanfaatkan tax heaven atau offshore financial centers namun disalahgunakan. Untuk mengatasi hal tersebut diperlukan aturan dan sanksi yang jelas. • International Aid (peningkatan bantuan internasional bisa dilakukan dengan cara menemukan sumber daya keuangan yang inovatif seperti carbon tax, meningkatan multilateral aid, manajemen aid dan future aid seperti: yang menjadi pemberi donor tidak selalu negara-negara yang sama dan transfer finance learning kepada negara-negara yang masih agak tradisional.

The Great Push-Back

Melalui GFA yang dijelaskan diatas diharapkan membantu untuk menangani krisis dan mencegah terjadinya krisis dikemudian hari. Namun secara teknis juga diperlukan pengetatan melalui penurunan tingkat leverage perbankan dan koordinasi global dalam regulasi dan supervisi. Kegagalan dari Basel II bukan karena kurangnya intensi terhadap perbankan namun karena sektor keuangan yang melemah secara internasional. Oleh karena itu melalui Basel III diharapkan bank dapat menjaga tingkat CAR dan leverage yang diharapkan.

Pengetatan tingkat leverage dan menaikkan CAR tidak berarti bank harus membatasi lending dan menurunkan pertumbuhan. Namun dengan CAR yang berkualitas dengan lebih sedikit debt, akan semakin mudah bagi bank memberikan pinjaman baru karena dananya berasal dari modal sehingga mengurangi resiko rush.

The Implication for the Entrepreneurial Economy

Setelah melakukan assessment terhadap GFA, perlu untuk mengetahui bagaimana dampaknya bagi entrepreneurship. Definisi entrepreneurial economy adalah peningkatan ekonomi yang didominasi oleh pengetahuan sebagai faktor produksi serta modal kewirauhahaan dengan pengembangan R&D. Namun kewirusahaan tidak selamanya memberikan keuntungan pertumbuhan dan perkembangan ekonomi. Hal ini mungkin terjadi karena adanya sistem birokrasi yang berbelit, wirausahawan yang kurang talenta khususnya di negara berkembang. Bahkan seperti di negara maju, perilaku wirausaha (resiko tinggi dan kurang well-manage) ini menimbulkan bubble sehingga terjadi krisis di US.

Sehubungan dengan krisis yang terjadi, karena sector keuangan mengalami gangguan maka terjadi hambatan dan penurunan dalam pendirian perusahaan baru sebagai bentuk wirausaha, biaya bunga tinggi, peningkatan pengganguran dan penurunan produksi. Krisis juga mengurangi volume perdagangan pasar internasional karena mempengaruhi penurunan ekspor.

Perbedaan umum antara kewirausahaan di negara berkembang dan negara maju adalah bahwa umumnya negara berkembang berperan sebagai imitator. Mereka mengadopsi teknologi dari negara maju diharapkan juga terjadi transfer teknologi dan perilaku usaha yang lebih baik. Selain itu wirausaha di negara berkembang umumnya didominasi oleh skala mengengah dan kecil dan cenderung untuk lebih banyak ekspor dibandingkan di negara maju.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Wim Naude (2011). “The Global Financial Crisis and Development, Implications for the Entrepreneurial Economy”. Maastricht School of Management, working paper no.2011/01.

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