Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
Historical development/context of the technology
In 1993, the final satellite was launched to complete the network of the 24 satellites that make up what is now known as the Global Positioning System. Because of these, a person can purchase a little device that has the capability to track and verify their exact location within a few hundred feet.
This fantastic technology only became available because the combination of scientific and engineering advances, especially the development of the atomic clock. The atomic clocks are precise within a billionth of a second. The development of the atomic clocks were important because the scientists were searching for answers about the nature of the universe. In the development of the atomic clocks, the physicists were unaware that one day their findings would lead to the global system that we use today.
For centuries the stars and the sun were the only way people could navigate or to find their way. Even after clocks were developed, it was possible for people to find their longitude but even with the most accurate instruments, exact locations were only good within a few miles. The Soviet Union launched their first satellite, Sputnik on October 4, 1957. This new technology did little more than orbit the earth every 98 minutes. It was not equipped with any scientific equipment although it did contain a single radio transmitter, which made it easy for the United States to track its path. The United States learned that they could listen to the changes in the radio frequency and figure out the location of the satellite. Even though the launch of Sputnik was pretty insignificant, it initiated the race to explore space. By monitoring the radio signals that were transmitted by Sputnik, the United States was able to develop technology that could track submarines. The navy experimented with different satellite systems and developed Transit in 1965. Because submarines needed to be hidden for months on end because of the nuclear missiles they were carrying, the Transit system, which was based on the gyroscope-navigation, could not sustain the accuracy over a long period of time. Eventually four more satellites were launched to make it more reliable for the submarines to pinpoint their location, even though the ground units were waiting for several hours before they picked up a signal. This system relied on six satellites that would circle the earth continuously monitoring the radio signals. A submarine could determine its location to within 10 or 15 minutes. By 1973, the Navy began looking for different ways that were more reliable for tracking and navigation. (Taubes, 1997)
Rockwell International was the first to develop the satellites that are used to orbit the earth for the global positioning system. The Navstar satellites each weigh approximately 2000 lbs. and are about the size of a large automobile. The first satellite was launched in 1978, and the configuration of satellites did not reach full capacity until 1993. The satellites orbit 12,000 miles above the earth and it takes each, of the 24 satellites currently in orbit, 12 hours to circle the earth. The way the satellites are configured with their orbit, it is ensured that the planet will always be in radio contact with at least four of the 24 satellites at any given time.
Relying on the atomic clock, the satellites continuously broadcast a signal that includes both, its position and time, to the exact billionth of a second. The GPS receiver then uses the information, from the four satellites, to calculate its position to within a few hundred feet of the exact location. The receiver uses this information and compares its own time with the time sent by the satellite and uses the difference to calculate the distance from the satellite.
If we look at an actual time line of how the development of the technology started and arrived to where it is today we would see many different changes and ideas that, at first glance, we would think have absolutely nothing to do with the GPS. Isidor Isaac Rabi sometime between 1938 and 1940 invented molecular-beam magnetic resonance. In doing this, he and his colleagues have the discussions about the possibility of an atomic clock to measure the gravitational shift. In 1949, Norman Ramsey too the technology further with the development and invention of a separated-oscillatory-field resonance, and with this, Ramsey’s method is accurate enough to measure gravitational red shift. Also in 1949, the atomic clock is operated using microwave absorption in ammonia gas, while the work starts on a cesium-beam atomic clock. Between 1949 and 1956, work on the atomic clock was ongoing and in 1956 Jerrod Zacharias and National Company developed the first self-contained portable atomic clock, the Atomicron. Without the atomic clocks accuracy, the GPS would not be able to pinpoint the locations. Hence the development of the atomic clock was the first step in the creation of the GPS technology. (Taubes, 1997)
As the timeline continues, the next step in the formation of the GPS technology was the launching of Sputnik by the Soviet Union. With the launching, the U.S. was able to use the radio signals emitted from the satellite to pinpoint the location, although not real accurate, it was a start. Between 1959 and 1965 the atomic clock was improved in order for the GPS systems to be developed. While in 1961, the Aerospace Corporation began development of the GPS in order to meet the needs of the military. It was not until sometime between 1964 and 1965 that the first position fix from a transit satellite is computed aboard a submarine. By 1968, the standards of the navigational satellite system were defined, and still used today.
In 1973, NAVSTAR was approved by the Department of Defense for use in the tracking of submarines. This was important because of the threat of the nuclear weapons that were transported by the submarines. It wasn’t until 1974 that the first GPS test is launched to test the atomic clocks. In 1977, the first test satellites incorporating the principal features, which included the first cesium atomic clocks, were launched into space. After years of testing, ten prototype GPS satellites were launched between 1978 and 1985.
Between 1989 and 1993, approximately six satellites are launched per year bringing the total count at any time to 24 satellites. The final satellite to complete the GPS navigational system was launched on June 26, 1993. New satellites are launched periodically to replace the older ones and to be used as backups in case of a malfunction. By 1996 with continued tweaks to the system, the White House announced that the Global Positioning System would be available to everyone and have a greater level of accuracy. (James, 2009)
The satellites are operated by the Air Force and monitored from five ground stations around the world. Each day the data is gathered and analyzed at the Air Force Consolidated Space Operations Center in Colorado. Each day, updates are sent to the satellites to make sure the time is correct and to make sure the orbital data is still intact.
While GPS is still a military device that was built by the Department of Defense, it has been made available for commercial use because the companies that built the equipment saw enormous profit potential within the market. Even though the Pentagon released the GPS and made it available, they have reserved the most accurate readings from the satellites strictly for military use and other authorized users. With the release of the satellite usage to private companies and with the updates to the satellites, the military is now able to broadcast two signals, one for civilian use with accuracy within 100 feet and a second signal that is only able to be deciphered by military that can pinpoint a location within 60 feet. Even though the Pentagon released the use of the satellite signals to be used by civilians, they have reserved the right to change the signals being sent to a distance of 300 feet accuracy for everyday public use. But in 1996, the White House again made a decision to phase out the different signals that can be broadcast from the satellites in order for everyone to have the same accuracy.
The development of GPS for military use, has proven beneficial over the years. In 1983, President Reagan, in response to Soviet fighter jets shooting down a Korean flight with passengers, opened the fledgling navigational system to nonmilitary. It wasn’t until 2000 that the demand for the products really took off. It was during this time that the military ended its practice of fuzzing the signals because of security purposes. It was as if the system became more accurate and because of this, GPS has become standard equipment on everything from fishing boats to over the road delivery by trucks. Because of the drop in size and cost of the receivers, consumers are flocking to buy these devices as well. You can find them today in phones, watches, dog collars, and even come standard on some models of automobiles. (James, 2009)
With the standardization and ease of obtaining the GPS, people are now using them for entertainment purposes as well. GPS is used for a treasure hunting game of sorts called geocaching. You search for “items” around the world and use a GPS to locate them. This has allowed people to utilize GPS for entertainment and enjoyment.
Not only are the satellites being used for navigation or for pinpointing locations, scientists are constantly researching ways for the systems to assist in other ways. Meteorologists are gauging wind speed by measuring the signals of the satellites as they pass through the atmosphere. Geologists study earthquakes by using the receivers placed along the fault lines, and because of the exact timing, technicians are synchronizing computer networks for everything from power grids to financial networks. (James, 2009)
The history of the Global Positioning System started as a way for scientists to search the heavens and it eventually led to the way business and personal lives are conducted today. With the invention of the atomic clock, we are able to use radio signals to pinpoint locations anywhere on the earth to within a few yards of measurement. From the first discovery of the way cesium works to maintain time to the launching of the final satellite, man continues to be enamored with GPS and the capabilities of the satellites and their use.

Economic Questions and Considerations
Tracking people has become a way to control certain citizens of our country, especially those within the prison system. This is done with the use of GPS tracking devices. However, with these devices, the question of privacy comes into play. Even though privacy rights advocates warn against using the evidence from GPS in cases against a person, law enforcement officials claim that the technologies have proven to be powerful in their investigations and as a forensic tool. One case was that of a Los Angeles man who was suspected of robbery, a GPS was planted in his car to track his movements and eventually was used to convince a jury of his guilt. (Williams, 2008) Because of the tracking and the recording that is standard on most new cars, investigators are able to view details of events, even those leading up to crashes. The use of this technology has allowed law enforcement agencies to save money while investigating crimes.
With GPS able to locate and record information about where people have been, it has made it easier for the law enforcement agencies to use these devices and the technology to solve crimes in a more efficient manner. The economic benefits of time saved, is a way for our legal system to remain more viable. A Wisconsin attorney points out that even people who purchase GPS to evade police have had the technology used against them. One case that was pointed out was where a man plead no contest to stalking a former girlfriend, only after they admitted the GPS information about his whereabouts did he plead. The GPS evidence found out his whereabouts and he was no longer able to hide the fact that he was stalking her. (Williams, 2008) The economic benefits to company owners who provide vehicles to their employees for company use is yet another way GPS has been able to provide some economic stability within a company. The owner has the right to track their vehicle, thus allowing them to track the employee as well and see if there is misconduct or misappropriation of time on the employee’s part. This has saved companies money because of no longer having to actually go out and track individuals anymore; they have the means to track right within the vehicle itself.
When looking at the considerations of the implications of GPS, we need to be aware of how they can affect a person’s movements. GPS has been used in Milwaukee to track the whereabouts of the city’s second ranking who, according to the city’s residency rules, need to live within the city proper of Milwaukee. Because of the use of the city-issued vehicle the city had the right to place a device on the car of the official. (Ganz, 2005) GPS is also used in the education field as well; it has been used in Georgia on the school buses to help avoid instances where a person may hijack a bus with children on it. With GPS installed on the bus, it can help authorities locate the bus and avoid a possible situation that could turn volatile.
We also need to consider the possible ramifications of the use of GPS as it applies to the Fourth Amendment rights of our citizens. The Fourth Amendment has been called into question on numerous cases involving the use of GPG and the tracking of suspects or of people’s wrongdoings. To name a few of the arguments against the use of GPS that defense attorney’s will bring up are that without a warrant, twenty-four hour surveillance of any citizen in this country will be possible, without the judicial knowledge or supervision. The courts disagreed with this stating that if the law enforcement practices were of a dragnet type, there will be enough time to determine if different constitutional principles may apply. (Ganz, 2005) However in another case involving a beeper placed inside a can, police were tracking the beeper to secure evidence against drug traffickers. The prosecution stated that the beeper did not meaningfully interfere with any of the possessory interests and was not a search. The courts however focused on the beeper while it was in the house, because there was no warrant and the courts looked at the case as if there was an agent that entered the house to monitor without a warrant, they looked upon the beeper as if there was not a difference, hence the monitoring of the home with the beeper was a violation of the Fourth Amendment rights of the individual. (Ganz, 2005)
When we look at a couple different cases involving GPS, we need to consider many different things, the first whether or not the rights of the citizens will be violated and also how the courts will view the evidence that may be collected from the GPS surveillance. Also the economic implications that can happen with the use of GPS can be proven to be a hardship on some and a relief on others. Companies will be able to track the whereabouts of their employees and be able to save money by making the employee more responsible for their actions. The law enforcement agencies will be able to save money by solving cases more readily because of the use of the technology. We need to consider all ramifications when it comes to the rights of our citizens and make sure we do not jeopardize those rights when it comes to enforcing our laws. Our country was established by laws protecting the innocent and by making sure that a person is given their day in court so to speak, and if we are to start jeopardizing those rights with the use of technology, we need to think again about the use of GPS.

References
Taubes, G. (1997, April). The global positioning system, the role of atomic clocks. Beyond discovery, Retrieved from http://www.beyonddiscovery.org/includes/DBFile.asp?ID=84
James, R. (2009, May). Gps. Time magazine, US, Retrieved from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1901500,00.html
Williams, C. (2008, November 25). Watch out for the snitch sitting on your dashboard. Los Angeles Times, Retrieved from http://articles.latimes.com/2008/nov/25/local/me-gps25
Ganz, J. (2005). It's already public: Why federal officers should not need warrants to use gps tracking devices. Journal of criminal law and criminology, Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6700/is_4_95/ai_n29228728/?tag=content;col1