...in Canada)? Pharmaceutical companies try to maintain a monopoly in the early stages of a drug in order to recover R&D investment. During this period of exclusivity they will try to make a fair profit. This is not a monopoly in the true sense of the word because this period is limited in time. It is perhaps better to describe it as a limited warranty. There are also other limitations. Pharmaceutical companies in some countries may not respect intellectual property and may copy or produce generic drugs even before the patent expires. An important criterion of a monopoly is price control. However, in many countries, a governmental agency is responsible for setting the prices of drugs, making the influence of the manufacturers somewhat limited. This puts pressure on the manufacturers to seek overseas markets in order to maximize their chances of recovering R&D costs and to earn a profit within the period covered by the patent. By so doing the market for re-importation and parallel imports is opened. Some of the prices that the pharmaceutical manufacturers end up accepting under these circumstances do not define a true monopoly. There are several barriers to entry that prevents re-importation into the US of drugs sold at lower prices. These include the following: Price difference Regulatory considerations Trade tariffs Cost of transport Reimbursement procedures Drugs would need to be kept under the same regulatory provisions as in the US, in order to be re-imported...
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...may actually have acquired HIV. 2. (a) There are approximately four main different lab tests that may be done to figure out if an individual has HIV; CD4 count, viral load, drug-resistance testing, and testing for STI’s. Others include blood cell count, kidney and liver function tests, blood glucose and blood fat levels, and hepatitis testing. o CD4 Count – The lower the CD4 count there is in a blood sample, the greater the risk there is for HIV already damaging the immune system. o Viral Load – Measure how much virus is in the bloodstream....
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...Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) falls in a class of viruses called retroviruses. HIV is a virus infects by invading certain cells of immune system, specifically the white blood cells called T- helper lymphocytes or CD4 cells ,which normally activates other cells in the immune system to fight infection,. HIV. . Over the course of HIV infection, the immune system deteriorated since HIV kills T-helper lymphocytes and the body cannot fight the virus or subsequent infections. Thus, infected person becomes vulnerable to other secondary infections and cancer that are much rarer in healthy inviduals. Person with HIV infection are categorized as those living with HIV and those with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) diagnosis. An AIDS diagnosis is made when the presence of HIV is confirmed and the CD4 count drops below 200 cells/mL or after an AIDS indicator condition is diagnosed. Regimens of antiviral drugs can slow the immune system deterioriation in infected patients and extend the life expectancy of those who have developed AIDS. The most common serotype is HIV-1 which is distributed worldwide The RNA viruses which are retroviruses enters CD4 cells by binding to a specialized site which is receptor on a body cell. Then, the virus loses its protective coat and releases RNA, its genetic material , and an enzyme known as reverse transcriptase . The enzyme reverse transcriptase contained inside the viral core to convert their RNA into a form that can enter the...
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...Rubio HIV/AIDS There are hundreds of thousands of people in the united states who are HIV infected many of whom do not know it or currently show no symptoms. What is HIV? HIV is a sexually transmitted diseases that destroys your immune system causing severe neurological problems. If people were more aware of their health, that could help the spread of HIV. This became an issue in June 5, 1981. The CDC published a MMWR, describing cases of a rare lung infection , PCP in 5 young previously healthy gay men in Los Angeles. At the end of 1981, 5 to 6 new cases of the disease were being reported each week. There are currently 1.1 million people living with HIV in the United States, with 16 percent unaware of their infection. Since the beginning of the HIV and AIDS epidemic, 600,000 people have died of AIDS related illness in the U.S. The US lacked a comprehensive plan on HIV until 2010 when president Obama created a national HIV/AIDS strategy. It is structured around three core aims. Reducing new HIV infections, increasing access to care and improving health outcomes for people living with HIV, and reducing HIV related disparities and health inequalities. To prevent this issue abstain from sex and injection drug use. This is the only way to be 100% sure you won't get HIV. Use a latex condom for sexual intercourse. Do not share needles. It doesn't matter if you are using needles to shoot drugs, for tattooing or body piercings...
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...What are scientists doing to solve of the problem of HIV? What are scientists doing to solve of the problem of HIV? By Prerana Bhandari St Olaves Grammar School By Prerana Bhandari St Olaves Grammar School Image taken from: http://cdn.zmescience.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/hiv_virus.jpg This human T cell (blue) is under attack by HIV (yellow), the virus that causes AIDS. Image taken from: http://cdn.zmescience.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/hiv_virus.jpg This human T cell (blue) is under attack by HIV (yellow), the virus that causes AIDS. Page Number: 3 6 8 9 Page Number: 3 6 8 9 Contents: 1. Biological Problem 2. Pathology 3. Solutions for HIV: 4. 14 15 16 18 19 20 21 23 8 9 14 15 16 18 19 20 21 23 8 9 Main Solution: Stribild or Quad study 102 and 103: 5. Evaluation of Stribild: Are the processes and methods appropriate for producing valid and reliable data and effective solutions? 6. How Stribild works 7. Limitations of Stribild 8. Benefits and Risks of Stribild to humans 9. Alternate solutions 10. Conclusion 11. References 12. Evaluation of sources What are scientists doing to solve of the problem of HIV? Biological Problem: HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is a virus which attacks the immune system, and weakens your ability to fight infections and disease and the final stage of HIV; AIDS (acquired immune deficiency) is when your body can...
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...HIV/AIDS INTRODUCTION At the beginning of the 20th Century it was believed by many, including the United States Patent Office, that there was nothing else to invent. Now, 100 years later at the beginning of the new millenium the ancient Egyptian philosopher is more relevant, "there is nothing new under the Sun". While HIV/AIDS may be a new disease, there is nothing new about a novel epidemic, which can potentially or actually decimate a population. In the late middle ages, the Black, now known as the Bubonic Plague, swept through Europe killing virtually half the population. It was introduced by a single or small group of rats that came to Italy abroad a trading ship from what is now Turkey. Small Pox transmitted by trade goods from the Hudson Bay Company wiped out entire Native American tribes. There are other examples of diseases accidentally introduced to a population that had no genetic immunity to them. Not to mention NASA's fear of an unbeatable super virus from outer space. Now as in previous diseases, one of the dangers of HIV/AIDS is not only in its plague proportions but also in the almost superstitious misunderstanding of the virus itself. In the treatment of all illness, it is necessary to understand the emotional, economic, psychological and sometimes even political impact that is brought about by the disease. This is particularly true with a disease that is as devastating and heretofore misunderstood as HIV/AIDS. AIDS is the punishment of God on sinners....
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...HIV/STI global issue Intravenous drug users (IDUs) are at an increased risk for blood-borne infections especially HIV due to sharing of contaminated syringes and needles. In china, an estimated 780,000 people were living in HIV/AIDS by the year 2011 and use of intravenous drug accounted for 28.4% of the reported cases. Syringe and needle exchange programs are aimed at allowing IDUs access sterile injecting equipment and safe disposal of used syringes and needles. The first official needle and syringe exchange program (NSEP) was established in 1983 in Amsterdam and these programs have since been widely established in both developing and developed world. Studies have shown that NSEPs effectively reduce HIV risk behaviors and HIV seroconversion among IDUs (Luo et al, 2015). According to Abdul-Quader et al (2013), out of an estimated global 16 million IDUs approximately 3 million are HIV positive and about 90% are at a great risk of HCV infection. Therefore, NSEPs have been implemented in cities, countries and regions worldwide in an effort to address HCV and HIV infections among the IDUs. Although these programs have shown to be beneficial in reducing factors influencing transmission of the viruses and risky injection behaviors, they have also been associated with negative effects among IDUs. Access to sterile syringes and needles is included by centers for disease control and prevention (CDC) list of evidence based HIV prevention interventions. In 2013, a panel comprising of experts...
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...Condom” campaign. This is because the priority and the main concern should be focused more on the practical and efficient ways in how to prevent HIV and AIDS instead of encourage people to use condoms which don’t seem enough to stop the spread of AIDS. Although condom can help in preventing sexually transmitted diseases (STD) and HIV and AIDS, but somehow it provides less protection against certain STD especially involved skin to skin contact, which including human papillomavirus or known as HPV like genital warts, syphilis and genital herpes. Using condom during sexual intercourse will reduce the risk of HIV and AIDS infection, but it doesn’t provide 100% protection against the diseases infection. There are still some rare cases in which some people were infected with HIV although they were using condom during sexual activities. The objective of the “Use Condom” campaign seem like only focus on the use of condoms which sending the wrong message that it’s fine to do any illicit sexual activities as long as using condom and will not get infected with these diseases. Not only that, there are still many ways to get infected with HIV and AIDS other than sexual activities. HIV and AIDS can get transmitted through the sharing of needles, breastfeeding from the mother who is HIV-infected, sharing syringes or other equipment used for drugs injection and blood transfusion. In all these factors, condom will not play an important part to prevent the spread of AIDS. Condom might be useful...
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...High-Risk Family Assessment and Health Promotion Paper Shova Rajbhandari NUR/542 April 23rd, 2012 Tracy Kramer MSN, RNC, FNP High-Risk Family Assessment and Health Promotion Paper For High risk family assessment: Intravenous Drug users (IDUs) family is chosen Common health issues /profile among members or families from this high-risk group: Drug abuse involves the regular taking of a deleterious or noxious quantity of any drug, prescribed or illicit over a period of time (Freidman, 2003). Those people who become severely drug dependent most often need specialized treatment in order to recover. A wide range of treatment is available through private sector and public sector. Recovery treatment centers usually incorporate the family into treatment plan, which makes it more effective in their treatment of the substance abuser. > HIV positive IDU and family members > IDU has a wide range of coinfections, coinfections, comorbidities and injecting related health issues. The common health problems in this IDU family are: • Infection with blood borne viruses, including hepatitis B, C and D (delta) leading to liver diseases • Bacterial infections: tuberculosis, bacterial pneumonia, • Alcohol dependence and alcohol-related liver disease • Poly substance dependence • Psychiatric comorbidity, including depression. • Deep venous thrombosis (DVT) • Local soft tissue and vascular injuries, including skin abscesses and...
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...Program is a social service created for intravenous drug users to be able to return their used needles in exchange for new, clean ones. It was initially funded by the federal government, but was banned in 1988, with a short reversal from 2009-2011. Currently there are 16 states and the District of Columbia that have provisions authorizing needle exchange programs. The programs have been shown to reduce the spread of HIV and Hepatitis C that occurs within the population of IV drug users sharing needles. There is controversy concerning the provision of paraphernalia to illicit drug users and some believe that it promotes the usage rather than people taking responsibility for an illegal habit with grave consequences they risk by choosing to use. The World Health Organization HIV/AIDS Program states that needle exchange programs are most effective when other services are offered that are targeted at IV drug users. Some of those would be HIV testing and counseling, education and treatment of STI’s, prevention and vaccination for Hepatitis B and C, antiretroviral therapy for HIV positive patients other interventions designed specifically for the risks of IV drug use. Advocates hold that those trapped in dangerous behaviors are often unable and/or unwilling to break free of them, and should at least be enabled to continue these behaviors in a less harmful manner. A tendency in the medical profession has been to treat drug dependency as a chronic illness like diabetes, hypertension...
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...HIV in the Community HIV or Human immunodeficiency virus is a virus that attacks the human immune system. Overtime the virus replicates numerous times and reduces the amount of healthy fighting cells call CD4. The virus actually attacks the CD4 by attaching itself to it, and then leaves no CD4 to fight other infections. Many times HIV is discovered by diagnosing opportunistic infection. An example is Candida's in the esophagus of a healthy young adult. Individual infected with HIV may not have any symptoms. Many times it’s discovered during diagnosing opportunistic infection as mentioned earlier. Early stages can be describe as flu like symptoms such as fever, chills, rash, night sweats, muscles aches, sores throat, swollen lymph nodes, mouth ulcers, oral candidiasis, gastrointestinal disturbances, myalgia, arthralgia and sore throat. Individual can get infected by engaging in certain activities that shares body fluids, semen, blood, vaginal fluids and breast milk. Individual are more at risk if they engage in sex with multiple partners without protection. Another risk is men having sex with other men or Intravenous drug users that shares needles. Alcohol and drug abuse is also a risk factor since it reduced our ability to make good judgment and more likely to participate in high risk sexual behaviors. Complication from HIV is ultimately AIDS and opportunistic infection when the body cannot fight a simple infection. Treatment goals are to reduce viral by taking antiretroviral...
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...the HIV virus in a near future and we should support the organizations that fund the research. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is the virus that can lead to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, or AIDS. Unlike some other viruses, the human body cannot get rid of HIV, once you contact HIV, you have it for life. HIV affects specific cells of the immune system, called CD4 cells, or T cells. Over time, HIV can destroy so many of these cells that the body can’t fight off infections and disease which then leads to AIDS. Within 2-4 weeks after HIV infection, many, but not all, people experience flu-like symptoms, often described as the “worst flu ever.” This is called “Acute Retro-viral Syndrome” (ARS) or “primary HIV infection,” and it’s the body’s natural response to the HIV infection. Symptoms can include fever (this is the most common symptom), swollen glands, sore throat, rash, fatigue, headache, muscle and joint aches and pains. These symptoms can last anywhere from a few days to several weeks. However, one should not assume that they have HIV if any of these symptoms should appear. Each of these symptoms can be caused by other illnesses. Conversely, not everyone who is infected with HIV develops ARS. Many people who are infected with HIV do not have any symptoms at all for 10 years or more. CDC, (2014). Only certain fluids—blood, semen (cum), pre-seminal fluid (pre-cum), rectal fluids, vaginal fluids, and breast milk—from an HIV-infected person can transmit HIV. These...
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...Epidemiology HIV, or human immunodeficiency virus, is a life threatening pandemic that affects humans on a global scale. The virus has claimed the lives of millions worldwide. HIV is primarily transmitted through unprotected sexual intercourse; however it can be spread by any contact of bodily fluid coming in contact with the mucous membranes of another person. Some examples of these fluids include semen, blood, pre-seminal fluid, rectal fluids, vaginal fluids, and breast milk (AIDS.GOV, 2014). While bodily fluids are the primary mode of transmission, there are other modes that the virus can be transmitted which include injection drug use, pregnancy or childbirth, occupational exposure, and blood transfusions. Once HIV is in the body, it begins to destroy CD4+ cells, which are white blood cells that help the body fight infection and disease (WebMD, 2013). While there are no specific symptoms that a person with HIV will present with, typically the person will develop flu-like symptoms within a month or two after the virus has entered the body. Some of these symptoms may include fever, headache, muscle cramps, rash, chills, sore throat, mouth or genital ulcers, swollen lymph nodes, night sweats, and diarrhea (Mayo Clinic, 2014). These symptoms can last from a few weeks to many months. The virus has four phases of infection that it progresses through throughout the disease process. These phases are primary infection, clinical latent infection, early symptomatic HIV infection, and...
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...Epidemiology Paper HIV virus is a life threatening disease that has no regards for gender, race, color or age group. This disease can affect anyone at any given time especially when one is placed in a situation where they could be at risk. The HIV, which stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. H- this virus only can infect human beings. I- HIV weakens the immune system by destroying important cells that fight diseases and infection. V- a virus can only reproduce itself by taking over the cells in the body of the host. These viruses cannot develop or reproduce on their own; they need to infect the cells of a living organism in order to multiply. There are two types of HIV, HIV-1 and HIV 2. Both types of HIV equally can damage a persons body by destroying specific blood cells, called CD4+ T cells, which are important to assisting the body in fighting diseases (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2015). There are three main stages of HIV infection (aids, gov, 2015). The first stage is the acute infection; this is where individuals normally develop influenza, flu-like symptoms. Symptoms can contain swollen glands, diarrhea, weight loss, sore throat, and fevers, fatigue. At this time the body is producing many viruses in the body. The second stage is Clinical Latency Stage. The “latency” meaning the development of a virus in a living person without symptoms (aids.gov). The virus on goes into producing more viruses but at a steady rate. This stage can approximately last up to 10 years...
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...HIV in Philippines HIV (Human immune deficiency syndrome) is the causing factor for the sexually transmitted disease AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome).HIV virus makes the Immune System weakened that result in making the body suspect able and vulnerable to many diseases. When the immune System is weakened the body becomes vulnerable to make diseases. (UNAIDS 2012). The HIV epidemic in the Philippines has been rapidly changing in the past 5 years. The first case of HIV in the Philippines was reported in 1984. During the 30 year time span, the HIV situation has been constantly growing although the prevalence remains well under 1%, at a low 0.04%. The government is trying its level best to make AIDS extinct through education and prevention. Moreover, the cases of HIV are increasing at an exponential rate, so there is a need to give serious attention to the problem. From one new case every three days in year 2000, to one new case every three hours by the end of 2011 (UNAIDS 2012). Those who engage in risky behaviors such as, performing unprotected sex with several partners or intravenous drug users are at risk the most and can possible result in death. Number of infections old and new While the number of cases of HIV has declined substantially in many areas in the world, countries like the Philippines are experiencing the opposite. According to UNAIDS 2012 there were approximately 15,000 people living with HIV. The Philippines is one of the only two countries in Asia...
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