Concept of Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction refers to the degree of favorableness of an employee’s attitude towards his or her job. It is basically the degree of enjoyment or pleasure an employee feels toward his or her job.

Job satisfaction refers to an individual’s general attitude towards the job. It can be affected by such factors as working conditions, pay and benefits the individual’s toward the organization and supervision and toward the work itself, and the individual’s health and age. Therefore job satisfaction is a general attitude resulting from specific attitudes and factors. It is an individual’s mindset with regard to a job. That mental set may be positive or negative, depending on the person’s mental set with regard to the major components of job satisfaction.

Supervisor-Subordinate Relationship

Supervisor-subordinate relationship is an important influence on job satisfaction in the workplace. The way in which subordinate’s perceive a supervisor’s behavior can positively or negatively influence job satisfaction. Communication behavior such as facial expression, eye contact, vocal expression, and body movement is crucial to the superior-subordinate relationship. Nonverbal messages play a central role in interpersonal interactions with respect to impression formation, deception, attraction, social influence, and emotional expression. Nonverbal immediacy from the supervisor helps to increase interpersonal involvement with their subordinates impacting job satisfaction. The manner in which supervisors communicate their subordinates may be more important than the verbal content. Individuals who dislike and think negatively about their supervisor are less willing to communicate or have motivation to work where as individuals who like and think positively of their supervisor are more likely to communicate and are satisfied with their job and work environment. The relationship of a subordinate with their supervisor is a very important aspect in the workplace. Therefore, a supervisor who uses nonverbal immediacy, friendliness, and open communication lines is more willing to receive positive feedback and high job satisfaction from a subordinate where as a supervisor who is antisocial, unfriendly, and unwilling to communicate will naturally receive negative feedback and very low job satisfaction from their subordinate’s in the workplace.

Theories of Job Satisfaction

There are numerous theories attempting to explain job satisfaction, but three conceptual frameworks seem to be more prominent. The first is content theory, which suggests that job satisfaction occurs when one’s need for growth and self-actualization are met by the individual’s job. The second conceptual framework is often referred to as process theory, which tries to explain job satisfaction by looking at how well the job meets one’s expectations and values. The third conceptual group includes situational theories, which proposes that job satisfaction is a product of how well an individual’s personal characteristics interact or mesh with the organizational characteristics.

Content Theories
When discussing human needs, growth, and self-actualization, one cannot look far before finding Abraham Maslow and his “hierarchy of needs”. Maslow’s traditionalist views of job satisfaction were based on his five-level model of human needs. At the lowest level, basic life sustaining needs such as water, food, and shelter were identified. The next level consisted of physical and financial security, while the third level included needs of social acceptance, belonging, and love. The fourth level incorporated self-esteem needs and recognition by one’s peers, and at the top of the pyramid was reserved for self-actualization needs such as personal autonomy and self-direction. According to Maslow, the needs of an individual exist in a logical order and that the basic lower level needs must be satisfied before those at higher levels. Then, once the basic needs are fulfilled, they no longer serve as motivators for the individual. The more a job allows for growth and acquisition of higher level needs, the more likely the individual is to report satisfaction with his or her job. Furthermore, the success of motivating people depends on recognizing the needs that are unsatisfied and helping the individual to meet those needs.

Frederick Hertzberg suggested that the work itself could serve as a principal source of job satisfaction. Hertzberg’s theory recognized that work characteristics generated by dissatisfaction were quite different from those created by satisfaction. He identified the factors that contribute to each dimension as “motivators” and “hygienes”. The motivators are intrinsic factors that influence satisfaction based on fulfillment of higher level needs such as achievement, recognition, and opportunity for growth. The hygiene factors are extrinsic variables that such as work conditions, pay, and interpersonal relationships that must be met to prevent dissatisfaction. When hygiene factors are poor, work will be dissatisfying. However, simply removing the poor hygiene does not equate to satisfaction. Similarly, when people are satisfied with their job, motivators are present, but removing the motivators does not automatically lead to dissatisfaction. Essentially, job satisfaction depends on the extrinsic characteristics of the job, in relation to the job’s ability to fulfill ones higher level needs of self-actualization.

Process Theories
Process theories attempt to explain job satisfaction by looking at expectancies and values. This theory of job satisfaction suggests that workers’ select their behaviors in order to meet their needs. Within this framework, Adams’ and Vroom have become the most prominent theorists. J. Stacy Adams’ suggested that people perceive their job as a series of inputs and outcomes. Inputs are factors such as experience, ability, and effort, while outcomes include things like salary, recognition, and opportunity. The theory is based on the premise that job satisfaction is a direct result of individuals’ perceptions of how fairly they are treated in comparison to others. This “equity theory” proposes that people seek social equity in the rewards they expect for performance. In other words, people feel satisfied at work when the input or contribution to a job and the resulting outcome are equal to that of their coworkers. This social equity is not limited to others within the same workplace, and the equity comparisons often reach into other organizations that are viewed as similar places of employment.

Vroom’s theory of job satisfaction was similar in that it looked at the interaction between personal and workplace variables; however, he also incorporated the element of workers’ expectations into his theory. The essence of this theory is that if workers put forth more effort and perform better at work, then they will be compensated accordingly. Differences between expected compensation and actual outcome lead to dissatisfaction. If employees receive less than they expect or otherwise feel as if they have been treated unfairly, then dissatisfaction may occur. On the other hand, overcompensation may also lead to dissatisfaction and the employee may experience feelings of guilt. The compensation does not have to be monetary, but pay is typically the most visible and most easily modified element of outcome. Salary also has significance beyond monetary value and the potential to acquire material items, and it is also an indication of personal achievement, organizational status, and recognition.

Situational Theories
The situational occurrences theory emerged in 1992, when Quarstein, McAfee, and Glassman stated that job satisfaction is determined by two factors: situational characteristics and situational occurrences. Situational characteristics are things such as pay, supervision, working conditions, promotional opportunities, and company policies that typically are considered by the employee before accepting the job. The situational occurrences are things that occur after taking a job that may be tangible or intangible, positive or negative. Positive occurrences might include extra vacation time, while negative occurrences might entail faulty equipment or strained coworker relationships. Within this theoretical framework, job satisfaction is a product of both situational factors and situational occurrences.

Affect Theory
Edwin A. Locke’s Range of Affect Theory (1976) is arguably the most famous job satisfaction model. The main premise of this theory is that satisfaction is determined by a discrepancy between what one wants in a job and what one has in a job. Further, the theory states that how much one values a given facet of work (e.g. the degree of autonomy in a position) moderates how satisfied/dissatisfied one becomes when expectations are/aren’t met. When a person values a particular facet of a job, his satisfaction is more greatly impacted both positively (when expectations are met) and negatively (when expectations are not met), compared to one who doesn’t value that facet. To illustrate, if Employee A values autonomy in the workplace and Employee B is indifferent about autonomy, then Employee A would be more satisfied in a position that offers a high degree of autonomy and less satisfied in a position with little or no autonomy compared to Employee B. This theory also states that too much of a particular facet will produce stronger feelings of dissatisfaction the more a worker values that facet.

McGregor's Theory “X” and Theory “Y”
Douglas McGregor proposed his famous X-Y theory in his 1960 book 'The Human Side of Enterprise'. Theory x and theory y are still referred to commonly in the field of management and motivation, and whilst more recent studies have questioned the rigidity of the model, Mcgregor's X-Y Theory remains a valid basic principle from which to develop positive management style and techniques.

McGregor's X-Y theory is a salutary and simple reminder of the natural rules for managing people, which under the pressure of day-to-day business are all too easily forgotten.

McGregor's ideas suggest that there are two fundamental approaches to managing people. Many managers tend towards theory x, and generally get poor results. Enlightened managers use theory y, which produces better performance and results, and allows people to grow and develop.

Theory X * The average person dislikes work and will avoid it he/she can. * Therefore most people must be forced with the threat of punishment to work towards organizational objectives. * The average person prefers to be directed; to avoid responsibility; is relatively unambitious, and wants security above all else.

Theory Y * People can be self-directed and creative at work, if properly motivated. * Under proper conditions, the average person learns to accept and seek responsibility. * Most people possess imagination, ingenuity and problem solving ability.

Measurement of Job Satisfaction

Measuring job satisfaction is difficult, for it is an abstract personal cognition that exists only in an individual’s mind. To measure job satisfaction, one must have a conceptual understanding of the construct in order to decide what indirect factors to measure. The most basic forms of measurement might include an interview, a single-item measure, or a workplace observation; however, most researchers select for a more objective and in-depth survey instrument. Questionnaires are easily distributed, have less room for bias, have increased likelihood of confidentiality, and require much less time and money than one-on-one interviews. Job satisfaction questionnaires also can examine any number of facets that have hypothesized impact on job satisfaction, although the lack of common agreement with definition and theory can present challenges when weighting each facet and interpreting the results. The most widely cited methods include The Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS), the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) and the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ).

The Job Satisfaction Survey
The Job Satisfaction Survey was developed by Paul E. Spector to assess employee attitudes about the job and aspects of the job. The JSS is a 36 item questionnaire that targets nine separate facets of job satisfaction. Those facets include pay, promotion, benefits, supervision, contingent rewards, operating procedures, coworkers, nature of work, and communication. Each of these facets is assessed with four items, and a total score is computed from all 36 items. Responses to each question range from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree", and questions are written in both directions.

Job Descriptive Index
The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) was first discussed in Smith, Kendall, and Hulin's publication of the Measurement of Satisfaction in Work and Retirement (1969). This 90-item scale is designed to measure employees' satisfaction with their jobs by looking at five important aspects or facets of job satisfaction which are present job, present pay, opportunities for promotion, supervision, and coworkers. It has been widely used and researched for over 40 years, and it has become one of the most popular job satisfaction survey instruments (DeMeuse, 1985; Zedeck, 1987). In fact, more than 12,000 research studies are currently archived by the JDI Research Group.

Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
Developed in 1967 by Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) has become a widely used instrument to evaluate job satisfaction. Three forms of the MSQ have been developed, two 100-item long forms (1977 version and 1967 version) and a 20-item short form. The MSQ is designed to measure specific aspects of an employee's satisfaction with his or her job, and it provides more information on the rewarding aspects of a job than do more general measures of job satisfaction. The MSQ has been widely used in studies exploring client vocational needs, in counseling follow-up studies, and in generating information about the reinforces in jobs.

The MSQ is a gender-neutral, self-administered paper-and-pencil inventory that is written on a fifth-grade level. The short form can be completed in about 5 minutes while the long form can be completed in 15 to 20 minutes. Although both the short and long forms provide job satisfaction estimates, the long form provides much more information for the short additional administration time required. The MSQ can be used in an individual or group setting, and standardized instructions for administration are provided. The 1977 revision of the MSQ (originally copyrighted in 1963) uses a standard five-point response scale. Response choices are “Very Satisfied”, “Satisfied”, "N" (Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied), “Dissatisfied” and “Very Dissatisfied.” This response format was found to have a ceiling effect which caused the scale score distributions to be negatively skewed. The 1967 version adjusted for this by changing the response options to “Not Satisfied,” “Somewhat Satisfied,” “Satisfied,” “Very Satisfied,” and “Extremely Satisfied. This modification resulted in a symmetrical scale score distribution that centered on the "satisfied" category and evidenced larger item variance.