...Outline and evaluate research into the relationship between the immune system and stress related illness (12 marks) Taylor McAndrew AO1 Cohen et al (1993) investigated the role of general life stress on vulnerability to the common cold virus. He found that the chance of developing a cold, i.e. failing to fight off the infection, was significantly correlated with stress index scores. Cohen et al. concluded that life stress and negative emotions reduce the effectiveness of our immune system, leaving participants less able to resist viral infection. A02 Support for research into the relationship between the immune system and stress related illness came from studies such as Evans and Edgington (1991) who found that the probability of developing a cold was significantly correlated with negative events in the proceeding days. Research findings from Cohen et al. and Kiecolt-Glaser et al. both demonstrated that life stress could reduce or impair immune function eventhough they used didfferent methods. This would indicate that stress does have a negative effect on the immune system. However other research evidence indicates that stress does not always have a negative effect on the immune system. In a major meta-review by Segerstrom and Miller (2004), they concluded that acute short-lasting stressors lead to an unregulation of natural immunity which indicates that short-lasting stressors is beneficial to the immune function which does not support Cohen et al. and Kiecolt-Glasers...
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...‘Outline and evaluate a piece of research that shows a relationship between stress and the immune system’ The immune system is a collection of billions of cells that travel through the bloodstream. They move in and out of tissues and organs, defending the body against foreign bodies (antigens), such as bacteria, viruses and cancerous cells. There are two types of lymphocytes within the immune system, these are; B cells- produce antibodies which are released into the fluid surrounding the body’s cells to destroy the invading viruses and bacteria. T cells- if the invader gets inside a cell, these (T cells) lock on to the infected cell, multiply and destroy it. The main types of immune cells are white blood cells. There are two types of white blood cells – lymphocytes and phagocytes. When people are stressed, the immune system’s ability to fight off antigens is reduced. That is why we are more prone to infectious disease. The stress hormone corticosteroid can suppress the effectiveness of the immune system (lowers the number of lymphocytes). Stress can also have an indirect effect on the immune system as a person may use unhealthy behavioural coping strategies to reduce their stress, such as drinking and smoking which further inhibit the immune system. There has been a lot of research into the relationship between stress and the immune system. One group of psychologists who researched this was Kiecolt- Glaser et al (1984). Their aim was to investigate whether stress of...
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...Outline and evaluate psychological research into stress and the immune system (12 marks) Stress causes the release of ACTH from the pituitary gland which signals the adrenal glands to release anti-inflammatory hormones. This weakens the immune system leaving the body vulnerable to infection and illness. Raised levels of cortisol suppresses the TH1 immune response. Kiecolt-Glaser et al conducted a natural experiment into acute stress, the aim was to see if the stress of exams had an effect on the immune system. Blood samples were taken from medical students before and during the exam period, T-Cell activity was measured in the blood samples. The findings showed that T-Cell activity was significantly higher before exams which suggests that acute stress caused reduced immune system functioning. Showing that stress is linked to a weakening of the body’s immune system. A weakness of this study is that it lacks population validity, as it was carried out on medical students. This means that the findings may not be replicated in of individuals and caution should be taken when generalising the findings to the whole population because medical students might not be representative of everyone. Cohen carried out a study into chronic stress, looking at whether conflict in interpersonal relationships reduced immune system functioning. It was found that couples whose interactions are negative and hostile for longer than a month were at risk of developing illness when exposed to an infection...
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...Outline and evaluate research into the relationship between the immune system and Stress-related illness. (12marks) It is suggested that stress can result in immunosuppression which can lead to stress-related illnesses such as Coronary Heart Disease and high blood pressure. Kiecolt and Glaser conducted an experiment to see the effects of stress on the immune system. This was achieved by taking blood samples of 75 medical students one month before and during their examination period. They then compared the two blood samples and found decreased leucocyte activity in the sample taken during high levels of stress (during their exams). This shows that stress reduces the activity of the immune system, making them more susceptible to becoming ill. Advantages of the study are that blood tests are objective measurements, so there was no social desirability or experimenter bias when analysing the results. The participants were also compared to themselves which removes participant variables on how they perceive stressors. The experiment was a field experiment so there was no manipulating of the independant variable to deliberately cause stress to the participants which makes it ethical. It also means the research has ecological validity and can be applied to the wider world. However, a field experiment may have extraneous variables which impact the results. For example, the student lifestyle of having little sleep and poor accomidation may have been an alternative source of stress. Another...
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...Outline and evaluate research into the relationship between the immune system and Stress-related illness. (12marks) It is suggested that stress can result in immunosuppression which can lead to stress-related illnesses such as Coronary Heart Disease and high blood pressure. Kiecolt and Glaser conducted an experiment to see the effects of stress on the immune system. This was achieved by taking blood samples of 75 medical students one month before and during their examination period. They then compared the two blood samples and found decreased leucocyte activity in the sample taken during high levels of stress (during their exams). This shows that stress reduces the activity of the immune system, making them more susceptible to becoming ill. Advantages of the study are that blood tests are objective measurements, so there was no social desirability or experimenter bias when analysing the results. The participants were also compared to themselves which removes participant variables on how they perceive stressors. The experiment was a field experiment so there was no manipulating of the independant variable to deliberately cause stress to the participants which makes it ethical. It also means the research has ecological validity and can be applied to the wider world. However, a field experiment may have extraneous variables which impact the results. For example, the student lifestyle of having little sleep and poor accomidation may have been an alternative source of stress. Another...
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...Outline & evaluate research into the relationship between the immune system and stress-related illness (12) AO1 - COHEN ET AL investigated the role of general life stress on vulnerability to the common cold virus. 394 participants completed questionnaires on the number of stressful life events experience in the previous year. They also rated their degree of stress and level of negative emotions such as depression. The 3 scores were combined into a stress index. Ps were then exposed to the common cold virus which lead to 82% becoming infected. After 7 days, the number whose infection developed into a clinical cold was recorded. They found the chance of developing the cold i.e. failing to fight off the viral infection was significantly correlated with stress index scores. AO2 – however this was an indirect study as there were no direct measures of immune function. Nevertheless the results have been supported by Evans & Edgington who found the probability of developing the cold was significantly correlated with negative life events in the preceding days. The study did measure health outcomes (development of clinical colds) showing a relationship between life stress and illness. However, there was no direct manipulation of the independent variable (stress index) therefore a cause and effect relationship cannot be confirmed – only correlational data. Finally, the study doesn’t tell us which of the 3 elements of the stress index is most important and/or if all 3 really contribute...
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...Outline and Evaluate the relationship between the workplace and stress Many people believe work affects their health. Defining what is stressful in the workplace is not easy, because individuals react quite differently to the same situation. However, some common factors have been found in many workers that cause them stress and in some cases lead to illness. These include the level of control they have (low control = stress), the amount of workload they have (high workload = stress) and role conflict (getting the work life balance right). The job-strain model of workplace stress suggests that the workplace creates stress and illness in two ways, through high workload (putting pressure on people to work harder) and low job control (e.g. over deadlines and procedures). Marmot tested this model by studying 7372 civil servants. They were asked to fill in a questionnaire on workload, job control and how much social support they received. They were also checked for signs of cardiovascular disease (e.g. chest pains). Five years later they were then re-assessed to see if those who reported difficulties also had more severe heart disease. They found that for workload and stress there was no link. However, for job control and social support there was a link. The lowest grade civil servants had both low job control and poor social support and had the highest level of cardiovascular problems. In contrast the higher-grade civil servants expressed a high level of job control and...
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...SAJ DEVSHI (C) AQA Psychology (A) Psya2 A* Students Model Essays The A* Students Handbook For More Psychology Resources visit: www.Loopa.co.uk C HAPTER 1 A little about me Firstly thank you for purchasing this book for AQA Psychology Psya2 (Paper 2). A bit about me: My name is Sajan Devshi and I was a private student that self-taught myself AQA Psychology from 2011-2012 and I received my certificate in January 2013 Achieving an A* Grade. The certificate you can view on my website http://www.loopa.co.uk - You can also get my other A* model essay answers from there too for the other topics I did. I achieved an A* grade overall scoring two A’s in Psya1 and Psya2 as well as 100% in both my A2 exams (Psya3 and Psya4) My final score was 373/400 ums points. (You only needed 90% in A2 and 320 for an A* grade). So basically I didn’t just beat the boundary - I absolutely smashed it. How did I do it? It wasn’t easy and I am by no means some savant genius. I made great notes and essays that simplified things for me as I had no teachers and it is these notes I share with you now for Psya2 and the essay questions that can be asked for it. If your curious to know more about me you can visit my website at http://www.loopa.co.uk There it tells you more about me, how I self-taught myself as well as contact me directly for help and advice as well as get my other essay answers there instantly. Theres also great resources there too with more added on a weekly basis...
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...This essay will define stress and stressors. It will also explain the how stress can affect an individuals and outline and evaluate the at least two models of stress. It will explore how stress can be measured and outline and evaluate two models of stress and stressors. Stress is a pressure or force exerted on an object according to engineers and physicians (Gross r,Mcilveen r and Cooligan2000). Lazarus and folkman (1984) define stress as “a pattern of negative physiological states and psychological response occurring in a situation where people perceive threats to their well-being which they may be unable to meet” (Grossr,Mcilveen r and Cooligan 2000). There are different views of stress. Stress as a “stimulus” which means it is applied to the person or stressor and it is in the environment. This relates to the engineering model of stress identified by Cox (1978)(blackboard).secondly stress is seen as a “response”, the body identifies stress as a reaction made within the body(Blackboard).Selye 1956 defines stress as “the non-specific response of the body to any demands made upon it” this relates to the physiological model of stress(Blackboard). Finally stress is viewed as an interaction, in this view stress is seen as a transaction between environment and the individual and this relates to the “transactional model of stress” (Blackboard). The ability to cope with stress and the meaning people give to stressors will define the stress experienced (Blackboard).How people react...
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...your answer(s), use the lined pages at the end of this book. Write the question number against your answer(s). Information The marks for questions are shown in brackets. The maximum mark for this paper is 72. Question 3 should be answered in continuous prose. You may use the space provided to plan your answer. In Question 3, you will be marked on your ability to: – use good English – organise information clearly – use specialist vocabulary where appropriate. (Jun10psya201) G/T52601 6/6/6/ PSYA2 2 Section A Biological Psychology Answer all questions in the spaces provided. Do not write outside the box Total for this question: 6 marks 1 The following data show the results from a study into different strategies for coping with stress. 100 student volunteers were first given a talk about emotion-focused approaches and then given a talk about problem-focused approaches. They were then asked which one of these strategies they generally preferred. Preferred coping strategy Emotion-focused approach Men Women 1 (a) 11 27 Problem-focused approach 39 23...
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...Psychology and Management of stress Task 1 Outline and evaluate (i) Selye’s (1956) General Adaption Syndrome of stress. The General Adaption Syndrome (GAS) is Selye’s belief that that the body has physiological ways in which to deal with long term and short term stress and its and that prolonged exposure to stress can result in illness. He started this in the 1930’s and based this on researching hormones of rats and found that the rats had stress response to his research. He believed that regardless of the type of stressor, the reaction of the stressor was always the same. (Rice et al 2010p100) Selye’s model has three stages: Alarm stage – This is where the environmental stimuli is viewed as a stressor and the ‘fight or flight’ instinct is aroused and the first reactions are aroused. This is where the automatic nervous system (ANS) is activated and the sympathetic branch of the nervous system to release adrenaline and noradrenaline, which in turn raises the heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration and digestion, slows. This stage is usually disappears quickly through the parasympathetic branch which returns everything to normal. If it continues we then move to the next stage Resistance stage – This is where the environmental stressors are still there, and the body physiologically starts to adapt and adjust. Arousal is still high and the high level of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) is still in the body. ACTH will try to resist stress by conserving glucose. The...
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...Outline and evaluate the restorative theory as explanation of a function of sleep The restorative theory is suggested to be a purpose of sleep that serves the function of restoring the body in several ways; firstly Slow Wave Sleep (SWS) is said to be the stage of sleep that releases the growth hormone. This hormone is functional for renewing proteins and involved in protein synthesis, and also involved in the immune system in restoring antibodies. This idea is supported by Sassin et al who looked at individuals who "reversed" their sleep cycle, so they were asleep during the day and awake at night, and the growth hormone was still released during sleep, supporting the role of the SWS and release of neurotransmitter, and showing the importance of sleep as a restorative function. Another aspect of the restorative theory as an explanation of sleep, is the idea that brain development takes place during the Rapid Eye Movement (REM) stage, which is why babies have longer REM sleep, as they are processing information such as memories, as well as secreting growth hormone etc. This view is a biological view, and contrasts with the evolutionary theory of sleep which suggests babies have longer REM sleep as an adaptive response for parents to be able to work, hunt etc. However, it has been found that length of REM sleep is directly proportional to the immaturity of the species, for example dolphins have no REM sleep and can swim from birth, compared to the platypus, which is immature...
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...Cambridge TECHNICALS OCR LEVEL 3 CAMBRIDGE TECHNICAL CERTIFICATE/DIPLOMA IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES FOR HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE A/601/2404 LEVEL 3 UNIT 7 GUIDED LEARNING HOURS: 30 UNIT CREDIT VALUE: 5 PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES FOR HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE A/601/2404 LEVEL 3 UNIT 7 AIM OF THE UNIT Psychology is the study of the human mind and behaviour. This unit aims to explain the reasons people do the things they do when it comes to health and wellbeing. The mind and the body are interlinked, e.g. stress caused by daily hassles or lifestyle can have a detrimental effect on the body’s immune system and can lead to serious illness. Psychologists have given us many ways to explain human behaviour and this unit is designed to enable learners to apply what they have learnt to their own practice; from helping people overcome emotional problems to dealing with challenging behaviours. The knowledge and understanding gained throughout the unit will benefit all those who work with others, be it people who use services, their friends and family, and other professionals. A wide range of perspectives is covered which can then be applied to many different health and social care settings. The behaviourists and social learning theorists can help to explain how health related behaviours are learnt as well as ways to teach new behaviours to people who use services. The humanists, on the other hand, provide us with a set of guidelines for working with...
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...Molecules, Biodiversity, Food and Health Biological Molecules Biological Molecules (a) describe how hydrogen bonding occurs between water molecules, and relate this, and other properties of water, to the roles of water in living organisms; Water is a polar molecule. This is because the oxygen atom pulls the shared electrons towards it, meaning that water is slightly negatively charged at the oxygen and positively charged at the hydrogen ends, so they can form hydrogen bonds with each other. This are continuing breaking and reforming, so the molecules can move around. Property of water Solvent Importance Metabolic processes in all organisms rely on chemicals being able to react together in solution Examples 70-95% of cytoplasm is water. Dissolved chemicals take part in processes such as respiration and photosynthesis in living organisms Liquid The movement of materials around organisms, both in cells and on a large scale in multicellular organisms requires a liquid transport medium Water molecules stick to each other creating surface tension at the water surface. Cohesion also makes long, thin water columns very strong and difficult to break Blood in animals and the vascular tissue in plants use water as a liquid transport medium Cohesion Freezing Water freezes, forming ice on the surface. Water beneath the surface becomes insulated and less likely to freeze Thermal stability Large bodies of water have fairly...
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...ICAK-USA Research The Following is a Compilation of Applied Kinesiology Research Papers Published in the Collected Papers of the International College of Applied Kinesiology for the year 2005-2006 -- Edited by Scott Cuthbert, D.C. Functional Systems Approach to Central Nervous System Evaluation Richard Belli, D.C., D.A.C.N.B. ABSTRACT Objective: This study investigates the clinical utility of testing functional systems within the central nervous system, compared to testing individual motor nerves with manual muscle testing. Design: Private practice. Study Subjects: Patients were examined by the treating chiropractor from his existing patient pool. Methods: Chiropractic management was decided on by the treating chiropractor. A series of twelve tests were designed to discover disorders of functional systems within the CNS. The tests described were to evaluate the function of 12 systems: 1) spinal cord, 2) myelencephalon/reticular formation, 3) vagal system, 4) trigeminal motor system-muscles of mastication, 5) vestibulospinal system, and bulbo reticular area, 6) reticular formation, 7) diencephalons and gait locomotion system, 8) mesencephalon, 9) cardiac sympathetic autonomic system, 10) pyramidal system, 11) limbic system, 12) sensory system. Results: This chiropractic approach tests the nervous system after provocation of functional systems instead...
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