...Cohen et al. investigated the link between general life stressors and vulnerability to the common cold virus. He took 394 healthy individuals and asked them to complete questionnaires on the number of stressful life events they had experienced the previous year, the degree of their stress and their level of negative emotions. The three scores were combined to what is called a stress index. He found that the chance of developing a cold was linked with stress levels. Cohen et al. concluded that stress reduces the effectiveness of our immune system, leaving participants less able to resist viral infection. Cohen et al.’s research measured health outcomes, which shows a relationship between life stress and illness. However, this study does not tell us which part of the stress index is most important. This study also has ethical issues that need to be considered, such as participants needing to be in good health with no illness or infections prior the study. The participants were described as healthy however it is difficult to operationalize ‘healthy individuals’. This is a subjective measurement which does not take into account individual differences which will affect the validity of the data and its application to the general population. A large sample size of 394 individuals was used. This means that there will be a lot of representative data which therefore means it is high in validity. Questionnaires can be an effective research method tool as they allow for a measurement...
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...into the relationship between the immune system and Stress-related illness. (12marks) It is suggested that stress can result in immunosuppression which can lead to stress-related illnesses such as Coronary Heart Disease and high blood pressure. Kiecolt and Glaser conducted an experiment to see the effects of stress on the immune system. This was achieved by taking blood samples of 75 medical students one month before and during their examination period. They then compared the two blood samples and found decreased leucocyte activity in the sample taken during high levels of stress (during their exams). This shows that stress reduces the activity of the immune system, making them more susceptible to becoming ill. Advantages of the study are that blood tests are objective measurements, so there was no social desirability or experimenter bias when analysing the results. The participants were also compared to themselves which removes participant variables on how they perceive stressors. The experiment was a field experiment so there was no manipulating of the independant variable to deliberately cause stress to the participants which makes it ethical. It also means the research has ecological validity and can be applied to the wider world. However, a field experiment may have extraneous variables which impact the results. For example, the student lifestyle of having little sleep and poor accomidation may have been an alternative source of stress. Another disadvantage is that there...
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...Outline and Evaluate research into the effects on Stress in the Immune System (12 marks) Stress is an environmental event or situation (a stressor), which can induce a stress response in us. When someone is experiencing a stressful situation, all the body's resources are diverted and this suppresses the immune system because of the high levels of stress hormones, corticosteroids, which shrink the thymus glands preventing the growth of T-cells. This makes us more vulnerable to infection and disease. Various studies have been devised to test whether stress makes us more vulnerable to infection and illness. Research has supported the theory that stress can reduce the effectiveness of the immune system. Kiecolt-Glaser et al 1984 devised the study of exam stress and the immune function in people exposed to high levels of stress. Blood samples were taken from medical students 1 month before their final exams (control reading) and on the first day of their exams. (stress reading) Participants also completed psychological questionnaires, and the difference in blood counts was greatest for those who reported highest levels of anxiety and social isolation. This sample of participants is an unrepresentative sample of the general population and its generalisation is therefore restricted only to medical students. Also the questionnaire is subjective and social desirability may take over the participant’s answers as they may be worrying who will see them. The perceptions...
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...Outline & evaluate research into the relationship between the immune system and stress-related illness (12) AO1 - COHEN ET AL investigated the role of general life stress on vulnerability to the common cold virus. 394 participants completed questionnaires on the number of stressful life events experience in the previous year. They also rated their degree of stress and level of negative emotions such as depression. The 3 scores were combined into a stress index. Ps were then exposed to the common cold virus which lead to 82% becoming infected. After 7 days, the number whose infection developed into a clinical cold was recorded. They found the chance of developing the cold i.e. failing to fight off the viral infection was significantly correlated with stress index scores. AO2 – however this was an indirect study as there were no direct measures of immune function. Nevertheless the results have been supported by Evans & Edgington who found the probability of developing the cold was significantly correlated with negative life events in the preceding days. The study did measure health outcomes (development of clinical colds) showing a relationship between life stress and illness. However, there was no direct manipulation of the independent variable (stress index) therefore a cause and effect relationship cannot be confirmed – only correlational data. Finally, the study doesn’t tell us which of the 3 elements of the stress index is most important and/or if all 3 really contribute...
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...into the relationship between the immune system and Stress-related illness. (12marks) It is suggested that stress can result in immunosuppression which can lead to stress-related illnesses such as Coronary Heart Disease and high blood pressure. Kiecolt and Glaser conducted an experiment to see the effects of stress on the immune system. This was achieved by taking blood samples of 75 medical students one month before and during their examination period. They then compared the two blood samples and found decreased leucocyte activity in the sample taken during high levels of stress (during their exams). This shows that stress reduces the activity of the immune system, making them more susceptible to becoming ill. Advantages of the study are that blood tests are objective measurements, so there was no social desirability or experimenter bias when analysing the results. The participants were also compared to themselves which removes participant variables on how they perceive stressors. The experiment was a field experiment so there was no manipulating of the independant variable to deliberately cause stress to the participants which makes it ethical. It also means the research has ecological validity and can be applied to the wider world. However, a field experiment may have extraneous variables which impact the results. For example, the student lifestyle of having little sleep and poor accomidation may have been an alternative source of stress. Another disadvantage is that there...
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...Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1984) conducted a natural experiment on medical students that investigated whether the short-term stressor of approaching exams had an effect on the immune system functioning. They took blood samples of the 75 participants one month before their final exams and then again on the first day of exams. The blood samples were then analysed for leucocyte activity of the natural killer cell. Questionnaires were also given to establish the students’ psychiatric mind set and their life events. They found that the natural killer cell activity decreased in the second blood sample, compared with the first. Furthermore, immune response was particularly low for those who scored highly in the loneliness, psychiatric symptoms and stressful life events symptoms. They concluded that stress is associated with reduced immune system function. Another piece of research was conducted by Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (2005) but this time investigated long-term, chronic stress. They tested the impact of interpersonal conflict on wound healing. They found that blister wounds on the arms of married couples healed more slowly after the couples had had discussions which were conflicting rather than supportive. A key strength of Kiecolt-Glaser’s short-term stress study is that it contained stressors that were naturally occurring, which increases validity because it creates more mundane realism as the stressors, IV and DV weren’t artificially induced. Furthermore, another strength is that...
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...There has been a lot of research that suggests that the immune system can be severely affected by stress. Kiecolt-Glaser did an experiment to evaluate the effect of acute stressors on the immune system. She had a group of students who were about to have their medical exams. She took the blood sample one month before the exams and another during the exam period. She measured the NK cell activity to see how the immune system was effected and found that the NK cell activity had dropped significantly in the second blood sample that had been taken shows that stress had caused to lower the efficiency of the immune system and made the students were vulnerable to stress-related illnesses. Also Marucha et al. conducted a study involving a group of students. Marucha inflicted a punch-biopsy 3 days before an exam and found that the wound took 40% longer to heal when the wound was inflicted during the exam period. Also if a acute stressors could have such a negative impact on the immune system on chronic stressors where also suspected to have a similar effect. Kiecolt-Glaser conducted a study where a group of married couples were asked to have discussions about their marriage and also of the couples had blisters on their arms. It was found that the groups of couples that had very supportive discussions showed the wound healing process to be much faster in comparison to the people who had an argumentative discussion. Also another researcher observed 90 newly wedded couples for a 24 hours...
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...Outline and evaluate psychological research into stress and the immune system (12 marks) Stress causes the release of ACTH from the pituitary gland which signals the adrenal glands to release anti-inflammatory hormones. This weakens the immune system leaving the body vulnerable to infection and illness. Raised levels of cortisol suppresses the TH1 immune response. Kiecolt-Glaser et al conducted a natural experiment into acute stress, the aim was to see if the stress of exams had an effect on the immune system. Blood samples were taken from medical students before and during the exam period, T-Cell activity was measured in the blood samples. The findings showed that T-Cell activity was significantly higher before exams which suggests that acute stress caused reduced immune system functioning. Showing that stress is linked to a weakening of the body’s immune system. A weakness of this study is that it lacks population validity, as it was carried out on medical students. This means that the findings may not be replicated in of individuals and caution should be taken when generalising the findings to the whole population because medical students might not be representative of everyone. Cohen carried out a study into chronic stress, looking at whether conflict in interpersonal relationships reduced immune system functioning. It was found that couples whose interactions are negative and hostile for longer than a month were at risk of developing illness when exposed to an infection...
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...HLSC111 Stress and Health Continuing with psychosocial aspects affecting health and particularly the role of stress and its possible mechanisms Week 6 Lecture A PNI, Pain and Health We will examine PNI ‐ Psychoneuroimmunology The immune system – its role in preventing disease Lect B – coping – what works Where are we? This lect draws a number of threads together: So far we have looked at: People and ways to understand them What people share with each other – developmental psychology What makes people unique – individual differences The role of groups people belong to Stress – causes and effects Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) What is it? PNI ‐ examines the relationships between the mind/brain and immune system “The field that studies the interactions between the central nervous system, the endocrine system and the immune system; the impact of behaviour/stress on these interactions; and the implications for health of these interactions” Ronald Glaser Now we will examine in more detail the relationship between behaviour, 1919 ‐ researchers noted increased stress increased the the nervous system, the endocrine system, immunity and coping ‐ ways to stay healthy Back to Physiology progression of pulmonary tuberculosis. Research foundations Psychosocial factors modulating immunity Immune system problems result from Increased Age Genetic disorders Infectious diseases Nutrition...
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...culture and ethnicity (Straub, 2012). Though HIV/AIDS can also be found throughout the population, the way that it is acquired is much different than cancer which cannot be passed from person to person (Straub, 2012). The paper will cover the immune surveillance model of cancer in psychoneuroimmunology and address how it compares to the biphasic model. We will also explore the effects of psychosocial factors on cancer and HIV/AIDS, specifically strategies for coping and stress management in cancer patients as well as the epidemiology of HIV/AIDS. According to Straub (2012), cancers can be divided into four types. The first and most common of these are carcinomas, which make up about 85 percent of all cancer that is diagnosed in adults (Straub, 2012). This type of cancer attack epithelial cells or the inner and outer surfaces of the body including the major organs and the skin (Straub, 2012). Because this accounts for such a large amount of the body it is no surprise that this is the most common cancer type. Second are sarcomas, which affect the muscles, bones and cartilage and account for only two percent of adult cancers (Straub, 2012). Next is lymphomas, which include cancers such as Hodgkin ’s disease, affecting the lymphatic system, specifically the lymph nodes...
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...Outline and evaluate research into the relationship between the immune system and stress related illness (12 marks) Taylor McAndrew AO1 Cohen et al (1993) investigated the role of general life stress on vulnerability to the common cold virus. He found that the chance of developing a cold, i.e. failing to fight off the infection, was significantly correlated with stress index scores. Cohen et al. concluded that life stress and negative emotions reduce the effectiveness of our immune system, leaving participants less able to resist viral infection. A02 Support for research into the relationship between the immune system and stress related illness came from studies such as Evans and Edgington (1991) who found that the probability of developing a cold was significantly correlated with negative events in the proceeding days. Research findings from Cohen et al. and Kiecolt-Glaser et al. both demonstrated that life stress could reduce or impair immune function eventhough they used didfferent methods. This would indicate that stress does have a negative effect on the immune system. However other research evidence indicates that stress does not always have a negative effect on the immune system. In a major meta-review by Segerstrom and Miller (2004), they concluded that acute short-lasting stressors lead to an unregulation of natural immunity which indicates that short-lasting stressors is beneficial to the immune function which does not support Cohen et al. and Kiecolt-Glasers...
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...What is the Impact of Stress on the Immune Response to Breast Cancer? My report covers the study of the “Impact of Stress on Immune Response of Breast Cancer Women After Mastectomy” conducted by the American Journal of Nursing Science. The study was conducted to examine whether stress influences immune responses in patients following breast cancer diagnosis and surgery. 60 women diagnosed with breast cancer agreed to be part of the study, they were between the ages of 45-55 years old and were scheduled to have a mastectomy. Before beginning their adjuvant therapy, all subjects completed an evaluation involving (1) Stress Assessment Scale (2) Immune Response Assessment Questionnaire. They took a 60-mL blood sample from each patient and subjected it many test including a panel of natural killer (NK) cell and T-lymphocyte assays. They then recorded personal data such as age, sex, level of education, occupation, marital status, monthly income, and their family situation to test the contribution of psychological stress in predicting immune function. Women who undergo chronic stress, such as the diagnosis and surgical treatment of breast cancer, often experience adjustment difficulties and biologic effects. This stress can affect the immune system, possibly reducing the ability to resist disease progression and metastatic spread. As stated in the American Journal of Nursing Science “The immune system is important to cancer women in...
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...Mind- Body Interaction Sometimes, one can be experiencing stress but his/ her mind and body can be so good at hiding it at times without even being aware. In such cases the symptoms might be more subtle and therefore difficult to recognise, such as: * working endlessly without tiring * having little feeling or emotion (except the occasional outburst of anger) * increased use of alcohol, caffeine, cigarettes or other drugs (which may suppress feelings of stress) * behaviour that is 'out of character' * an inability to relax If you are under a lot of stress for a prolonged period of time, but do not feel stressed, eventually it may catch up with you and cause more serious symptoms, such as: * stomach ulcers * heart problems * minor illness (allergies, skin disorders, migraine) * serious illness (eg: arthritis, cancer, diabetes) * mental problems (eg: depression Consider this example of mind- body interaction. * Tomorrow you are schedule to take a final examination, and you must pass the course in order to remain in the nursing program. After a sleepless night, you cannot swallow any food at breakfast, your heartbeat is rapid, you are filled with feelings of anxiety, and you have a diarrhea. What causes the link between psychological stressors and the physiologic stress response? The exact cause is not well known but it is thought that humans respond to treats of danger as if they were physiologic threats. A person perceives...
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... Stress Kills “The body releases hormones that increase the heart rate; cause rapid, shallow breathing; constrict blood vessels supplying digestive organs; and tighten muscles.” This quote comes from Deborah S. Hatrz-Seeley’s article “Chronic Stress Leads to the Six Leading Causes of Death” That’s right. That quote isn’t the effect of a heart attack or some other drastic health problem, those symptoms are just some of the things that come along with stress in the human body. The effects mentioned in Seeley’s article are after a person experiences something like a moderate car accident or being chased by something that could do harm (Chronic). In a situation like this, the body enters a so called “fight or flight” mode which helps the person get away from the situation safely, but once the danger has depleted the person goes in the “rest and digest” mode. Although this is a good and natural thing for the body to do, for most men today, they skip this mode and the stress from the moderate event becomes turns it into a more serious, chronic stress (Chronic). Also, in Seeley’s article and according to the American Psychological Association, “Chronic stress is linked to the six leading causes of death: heart disease, cancer, lung ailments, accidents, cirrhosis of the liver and suicide. And more than 75 percent of all physician office visits are for stress-related ailments and complaints.” These examples are only a touch on how much stress effects peoples health...
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...recognition of these enemies rely on two intrinsic defense systems, they are the innate and the adaptive systems. These two systems work independent of each other and also rely on each other cooperatively in the defense of disease. This system of defense is what is called our immunity. If the immune system is operating effectively it will protect the body from foreign invaders vigorously and sometimes without regard to the good and bad cells. One system that is nonspecific to foreign substances is the innate system. The innate, sometimes called the natural immunity is the first line of defense for the body (Marieb, 2013). Skin barriers and mucosal bodies such as acidity of the skin, lysozyme found in salvia, mucus found in the respiratory track and defensins found in mucous membranes are all part of the innate immune system (Marieb, 2013). Internal innate systems include phagocytes and macrophages by killing and ingesting their prey with enzymes (Marieb, 2013). The innate system also includes the inflammatory response which prevents agents from spreading to adjacent tissues and promotes tissue repair quickly when an injury has occurred. Other defenses in the innate system include Natural killer cells which act as a policing cell in the blood and lymph (Marieb, 2013). In other words, they can determine which cells to lyse before the need to introduce the adaptive immune system begins. The adaptive immune system is the elite fighting force in the army that is equipped...
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