...Parkinson’s disease is a slowly progressive neurological disorder that’s cause by a depletion of dopamine in the caudate nucleus, putamen, and pallidum, structures in the neostriatum that normally contains high levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine. It was first discovered by a Doctor James Parkinson in 1817. The disease was first known as the “shaking palsy” before being named after James Parkinson. (Ramirez, 2004). One million people are affected by Parkinson's disease in the United States. Worldwide five million people are affected. Parkinson’s disease is an idiopathic disease that occurs in people over 60 years of age. However study also shows that a small number of people 40 years of age also have Parkinsons. It affects both men and women. It is rare in children. Having a close relative with Parkinson's increases the chances that a person can also develop the disease. Exposure to herbicides and pesticides increases the risk for Parkinson's. Symptoms for Parkinson’s disease are easily noticeable. They may be mild at first. For instance, you may have a mild tremor or a slight feeling that one leg or foot is stiff and dragging. The characteristic shaking associated with Parkinson's disease often begins in a hand. A back-and-forth rubbing of your thumb and forefinger, known as pill-rolling, is common, and may occur when your hand is at rest. However, not everyone experiences tremors. Bradykinesia or slowed movements occur. Parkinsons decreases the ability to...
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...Neurodegenerative Disorders: Alzheimer’s Disease 1. Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) Alzheimer’s disease (AD) remains a major cause of senile dementia, which is characterised by an impairment of neuronal and synaptic function in addition to the accumulation of β-amyloid plaque and formation of neurofibrillary tangles within distinct portions of the brain (De Strooper and Annaert, 2000). Progression of this distinct pathology of neurodegeneration does not typically vary from patient to patient, beginning in cerebral cortex before targeting the hippocampus, neocortex as well as the sub-cortical nuclei (Braak and Braak, 1995). The role of amyloid precursor protein (APP) in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease is pivotal. The cleavage of APP by the proteases β and γ- secretase releases β-amyloid (Aβ) peptides which results in aggregation of the peptides due to misfolding to form fibrils of Aβ which comprise the key components of amyloid plaque deposits in the brains of AD patients (Glenner and Wong, 1984). Amyloid precursor protein (APP) is a trans-membrane glycoprotein which normally functions in synapse formation as well as axonal elongation. The protein possesses a small cytoplasmic domain but is composed primarily of a large extracellular domain. Processing of APP in the extracellular domain by α or β- secretase results in the complete removal of the protein’s ectodomain which gives rise to an accumulation of sizeable and soluble derivatives of APP referred to as...
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...Parkinson’s Disease Part 1 Melissa Whisman King University NURS 3005 Pathophysiology Jessica Belnap Parkinson’s Disease Part 1 Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a common and complex neurodegenerative disorder. It is second only to Alzheimer’s disease in commonality (Lees, A. J.,2011). Parkinson’s disease is a slowly progressive degenerative disorder and is usually idiopathic. The first extensive description of Parkinson’s Disease was written over 2 hundred years ago. In 1817, English physician James Parkinson write an essay describing six causes of a condition called paralysis agitans (Lees, A.J., 2011). The essay, titled “Essay on the Shaking Palsy” described characteristic traits such as resting tremor, abnormal posture and gait, paralysis, and decreased muscle strength, and the way the condition progressed over a period of time (Lees, A.J., 2011). Early neurologists such as Trousseau, Gowers, Kinnier Wilson, and Erb made contributions to the knowledge of Parkinson’s disease. But the most noteworthy was Jean-Martin Charcot. His specific studies between 1868 and 1881 proved to be the turning point in gaining knowledge about the disease (Lees, A.J., 2011). During this particular period of time, Charcot was able to distinguish between muscle rigidity, muscle weakness, and the slowness of movement, also known as bradykinesia. Charcot was instrumental in renaming the disease in honor of James Parkinson. In 1912, Frederic Lewy observed microscopic particles in the...
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...reduction of neuromelanin pigmentation in the substantia nigra and locus coeruleus.[42] The histopathology (microscopic anatomy) of the substantia nigra and several other brain regions shows neuronal loss and Lewy bodies in many of the remaining nerve cells. Neuronal loss is accompanied by death of astrocytes (star-shaped glial cells) and activation of the microglia (another type of glial cell). Lewy bodies are a key pathological feature of PD.[42] Pathophysiology The primary symptoms of Parkinson's disease result from greatly reduced activity of dopamine-secreting cells caused by cell death in the pars compacta region of the substantia nigra.[41] There are five major pathways in the brain connecting other brain areas with the basal ganglia. These are known as the motor,oculo-motor, associative, limbic and orbitofrontal circuits, with names indicating the main projection area of each circuit.[41] All of them are affected in PD, and their disruption explains many of the symptoms of the disease since these circuits are involved in a wide variety of functions including movement, attention and learning.[41] Scientifically, the motor circuit has been examined the most intensively.[41] A particular conceptual model of the motor circuit and its alteration with PD has been of great influence since 1980, although some limitations have...
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...fat-soluble antioxidant consisting of tocopherol and tocotrienol. The tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRF) palm oil extract comprises 25% α-tocopherol (α-TCP) and 75% tocotrienols. TRF has been shown to possess potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, neuroprotective, and cholesterol-lowering activities. Glutamate is the main excitatory amino acid neurotransmitter in mammalian central nervous systems; it can be excitotoxic and has been suggested to play a key role in neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease. In this study, the effects of vitamin E when supplemented before (pre-treatment) and after (post-treatment) glutamate insult were elucidated in neuronal and astrocyte cell lines. The neuroprotective effect of TRF and α-TCP were investigated. Glutamate-mediated cytotoxicity was diminished by pre- and post-treatment of TRF and α-TCP. Vitamin E acted as a potent antioxidant agent in recovering mitochondrial injury from elevated oxidative stress, and cells exhibited better survival following glutamate toxicity. Quantitative morphological studies were also conducted via an apoptosis detection kit using flow cytometric analysis. Pre- and post-treatment with TRF and α-TCP led to better survival and lower cell death rates following glutamate neurotoxicity. The flow cytometry morphological findings were validated by scanning electron microscopy analysis. Cell cycle analysis was also performed using an RNAse-propidium iodide assay. The presence of glutamate...
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...Brain connectivity is one of the most enigmatic question posed to neuro-biologists. The establishment of this intricate network in prenates and neonates brain is influenced in equal measures by environmental and biological factors. In it's extension, certain environmental stimulation boost the parameters for improved brain connectivity. One such factor is auditory stimulation. It is widely believed that use of such stimulation increases cognitive functions. With the present understanding of the underlying mechanism use of auditory stimulation can be used for reprogramming brain connectivity. Studies indicate the effective reprogramming in psychiatric disorders such as autism and neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s and ALS, where...
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...the same purpose, there are different types of power lines systems, and some have higher voltages than the others. Electromagnetic fields are created with the conduction of electricity, “because of the movement and existence of the charges. During the 1970’s, an examination was made on childhood leukemia and the results found a possible relationship between an increase in the disease and exposure to electromagnetic fields. From that moment on, many other studies attempted to show a link between electromagnetic fields and other diseases, which has caused major concern in many people. While some studies claim that there is a link between the two, some others demand that there is not enough proof to categorize electromagnetic fields as dangerous to human health. Even though exposure to electromagnetic fields has been labeled as a “human carcinogen,” most experts claim that there is not enough proof to make this claim and most studies show no relationship between these diseases and exposure to EMFs. Perhaps, some other factors should be considered when linking EMFs to developing certain diseases. Since our company was concerned about our customers’ anxiety, we decided to make a report on the subject. This report will provide information about electromagnetic fields and their health effects. Also, it will attempt to clear the concern of our customers, and will suggest which way to get the information to the clientele. Collected Data: Dangers As debatable as...
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...Drug Information Paper: Levodopa/Carbidopa: Sinemet Kristin Curcione Daemen College This drug information report will explore in detail the medication Levodopa. Levodopa is the most effective drug for the symptomatic treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Levodopa works when it is absorbed in the blood from the small intestine and travels through blood to the brain where it is converted to dopamine (Parkkinen, O'Sullivan, Kuoppamäki, et al., 2011). It is intended for the purpose of treating chronic neurodegenerative diseases. It is primarily used in neurology practice for patients who are experiencing idiopathic Lewy body degenerative disease of the central nervous system. This paper will also discuss use of Carbidopa as it is used...
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...BEL311 ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES TERM PAPER ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE: NOT JUST A LOSS OF MEMORY Prepared by: XXXXXXXXX (matric no.) XXXXXXXXX (matric no.) Group XXX Prepared for: XXXXXXXXXXXX Date of Submission: July 2011 Introduction Alzheimer's disease, a neurodegenerative brain disease, is the most common cause of dementia. It currently afflicts about 4 million Americans and is the fourth leading cause of death in the United States. Furthermore, Alzheimer’s disease is the leading cause of mental impairment in elderly people and accounts for a large percentage of admissions to assisted living homes, nursing homes, and other long-term care facilities. Psychotic symptoms, such as delusions and hallucinations, have been reported in a large proportion of patients with this disease. In fact, it is the presence of these psychotic symptoms can lead to early institutionalization (Bassiony, et al, 2000). Learning about Alzheimer’s disease and realizing that it is much more that just a loss of memory can benefit the families of those with the disorder as well as society as a whole. This paper is to look at the disorder, as well as to discuss the history, symptoms, diagnosis, current researches and hopes of a cure for Alzheimer’s disease. History Around the turn of the century, two kinds of dementia were defined by Emil Kraepin: senile and presenile. The presenile form was described more in detail by Alois Alzheimer as a progressive deterioration...
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...Alzheimer’s Disease: Not Just Loss of Memory This is a 8 page, 10 resource paper discussing Alzheimer’s disease, discussing the history, symptoms, diagnosis and hopes for a cure of the disease. Alzheimer’s Disease: Not Just Loss of Memory Introduction Alzheimer's disease, a neurodegenerative brain disease, is the most common cause of dementia. It currently afflicts about 4 million Americans and is the fourth leading cause of death in the United States. Furthermore, Alzheimer’s disease is the leading cause of mental impairment in elderly people and accounts for a large percentage of admissions to assisted living homes, nursing homes, and other long-term care facilities. Psychotic symptoms, such as delusions and hallucinations, have been reported in a large proportion of patients with this disease. In fact, it is the presence of these psychotic symptoms can lead to early institutionalization (Bassiony, et all, 2000). Learning about Alzheimer’s disease and realizing that it is much more that just a loss of memory can benefit the families of those with the disorder as well as society as a whole. The purpose of this paper is to look at the disorder, as well as to discuss the history, symptoms, diagnosis and hopes of a cure for Alzheimer’s disease. History Around the turn of the century, two kinds of dementia were defined by Emil Kraepin: senile and presenile. The presenile form was described more in detail by Alois Alzheimer as a progressive deterioration of...
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...Alzheimer’s Disease: Not Just Loss of Memory Introduction Alzheimer's disease, a neurodegenerative brain disease, is the most common cause of dementia. It currently afflicts about 4 million Americans and is the fourth leading cause of death in the United States. Furthermore, Alzheimer’s disease is the leading cause of mental impairment in elderly people and accounts for a large percentage of admissions to assisted living homes, nursing homes, and other long-term care facilities. Psychotic symptoms, such as delusions and hallucinations, have been reported in a large proportion of patients with this disease. In fact, it is the presence of these psychotic symptoms can lead to early institutionalization (Bassiony, et all, 2000). Learning about Alzheimer’s disease and realizing that it is much more that just a loss of memory can benefit the families of those with the disorder as well as society as a whole. The purpose of this paper is to look at the disorder, as well as to discuss the history, symptoms, diagnosis and hopes of a cure for Alzheimer’s disease. History Around the turn of the century, two kinds of dementia were defined by Emil Kraepin: senile and presenile. The presenile form was described more in detail by Alois Alzheimer as a progressive deterioration of intellect, memory and orientation. As a neuropathologist, Alzheimer studied the case a 51 year-old woman. When she died, Alzheimer performed an autopsy and found that she had “cerebral atrophy”...
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...the sustaining of good health and general well-being because of its protective and preservative characteristics. It has also been found that selenium deficiency may lead to increased susceptibility to disease and ill health. Organic And Inorganic Selenium Explained Selenium exists in two chemical forms in nature, Organic Selenium and Inorganic Selenium. Inorganic Selenium can be found in different minerals in the form of selenite, selenate and selenide as well as in metallic form. In contrast, in vegetable feed Organic Selenium is an integral part of amino acids. Therefore, in nature animals receive selenium mainly in the organic form. Research had shown that Organic Selenium is far more beneficial for us as our body absorbs and retain Organic Selenium at a better rate. Organic Selenium vs Inorganic Selenium Organic Selenium Inorganic Selenium • Exists in the form of seleno-amino acids, i.e. selenomethionine. • Exists in the form of mineral salt. • Is actively absorbed by amino acid routes. • Is passively absorbed from the small intestine. • More Organic Selenium is retained by our bodies. • Most of the unused Inorganic Selenium in our bodies is excreted. • Our tissues store Organic Selenium and hold it in reserve for times of greatest need, such as during times of stress. • Only a small amount of Inorganic Selenium finds its way into body protein. • Organic Selenium is retained by our body in useful form. • Inorganic Selenium is...
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...Comparing LC50 of Insectisides Pirimicarb and Rotenone on Blowfly, Blowfly larvae, Woodlice and Daphni Abstract The LC50 of insecticides rotenone and pirimicarb were compared by testing blowfly, blowfly larva, woodlice and daphnia. Rotenone is a NADH dehydrogenase inhibitor causing death by oxidative stress however pirimicarb causes toxicity through acetylcholinesterase inhibition. It was found that rotenone had large toxic effects on daphnia, blowflies and woodlice but not maggots and pirimicarb had low toxic effects on all of the organisms tested. Due to the low percentage death caused by pirimicarb a LC50, however in rotenone a LC50 was performed for daphnia, woodlice and blowfly the LC50 for each organism was compared concluding that rotenone was most toxic to daphnia. Introduction Rotenone is a naturally occurring insecticide derived from the root of Derris Ellipitica and Lonchcarpus species (Nass &Przedborski 2008). It is metabolised in the liver by NADP-linked hepatic microsomal enzymes and is both a contact and systemic insecticide. Rotenone can be used as either a specific or a non-specific broad-spectrum insecticide that has been used since 1848 (Gupra 2012) (Nass & Przedborski 2008). Pirimicarb or Dimethyamino-5,6-dimethylpyrimidin-4-y; N,N-dimethylcarbamate is a synthetic systemic selective insecticide with contact stomach and respiratory action. Pirimicarb was first made by Imperial Chemical Industries and was originally registered in 1974 but...
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...M.N.V. Ravi Kumar ⁎ Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Phase-X, S.A.S. Nagar, Mohali, Punjab, India - 160062 Received 31 January 2006; accepted 26 April 2006 Available online 13 May 2006 Abstract Antioxidants are emerging as prophylactic and therapeutic agents. These are the agents, which scavenge free radicals otherwise reactive oxygen species and prevent the damage caused by them. Free radicals have been associated with pathogenesis of various disorders like cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, autoimmune diseases, neurodegenerative disorders and are implicated in aging. Several antioxidants like SOD, CAT, epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate, lycopene, ellagic acid, coenzyme Q10, indole-3-carbinol, genistein, quercetin, vitamin C and vitamin E have been found to be pharmacologically active as prophylactic and therapeutic agents for above mentioned diseases. Antioxidants are part of diet but their bioavailability through dietary supplementation depends on several factors. This major drawback of dietary agents may be due to one or many of the several factors like poor solubility, inefficient permeability, instability due to storage of food, first pass effect and GI degradation. Conventional dosage forms may not result in efficient formulation owing to their poor biopharmaceutical properties. Principles of novel drug delivery systems need to be applied to significantly improve the performance of antioxidants. Novel...
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...Dangers of stress Stress Puts You in Danger Dina Haidar Global University Stress Puts You in Danger Stress is like spice - in the right proportion it enhances the flavor of a dish. Too little produces a bland, dull meal; too much may choke you" Donald Tubesing (Madison, 2011). Walter Cannon have found out during the year 1940 that stress triggers the fight-or-flight reaction which is positive mainly because it is designed to save our lives. And he described it as “an emergency reaction that prepares an animal for running or fighting” (Tennant, 2005). Under stress circumstances your heart pounds faster, blood pressure rises, breath quickens ,your senses becomes sharper. These reactions increases your stamina, speeds your reaction, and enhance your focus preparing you to either fight or flee (Tennant, john hopkins university schools of education, 2005) .it is optimistic when a person feels stimulated and able to manage the situation, handle emergencies meet challenges and excel. (Tennant, 2005) But there is no doubt that the negative effects dominates over the positives. . Stress is often related to deleterious physiological complications, It corrupts almost every system in the human body (Melinda Smith, 2012).A recent study has shown that 80% of the most commonly prescripted medicines in the U.S. are those of relates to stress illnesses (institute, 2009) .Everyone experience stress, and stress in all...
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