...Gene therapy is the transplantation of normal, healthy genes into cells in place of missing or defective ones in order to repair or replace the diseased causing cell, genes. How it works is correct the genetic disorders, like sickle cell, brain cancer and other cancerous cell and viral infections. Biotechnologist have found that there is still no quick rout to achieving this. Gene therapy is still at its experimental stages of treatment, but some of their findings have been promising. The gene therapy starts with a virus. The Genetic engineers then extract the genetic coding from the virus, replacing it with a therapeutic gene that is designed to produce proteins that help fight certain illness. Proteins are then added to the virus. The protein is placed on top of the virus. It then attaches itself to the cell that is causing the disease or virus. This the new genetic code. The new gene with the virus is then injected into a patient or patients. It will then to try get through the body’s immune systems. Sometimes the immune system will attack and destroy the virus before it able to reach the diseased or cancerous cells. The virus only attaches to cells that are compatible to its receptors. When the diseased causing cell starts to respond to the proteins the virus attaches itself to the surface and the cell receptors draws the virus inside this called endocytosis. The virus which contains a genetic coding for enzymes is called integrase. Next the enzyme...
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...Leukemia/Lymphoma 2 is a special type of proto-oncogene found on chromosome 18. Its product is an integral membrane protein (called BCL-2) located in the membrane of the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), the nuclear envelope, and in the outer membranes of the Mitochondria. The gene was discovered as a trans located locus in B-cell Leukemia, and found also in most B-cell Lymphomas. In the cancerous B-cells, the amount of chromosome 18 holding the BCL-2 locus has undergone a reciprocal translocation with the portion of chromosome 14, holding the antibody heavy chain locus. This (14; 18) translocation places the BCL-2 gene close to the heavy chain gene enhancer. This enhancer is active in the B cells- whose job is to synthesize large amounts of the antibody-. So it is not very surprising to discover that the BCL-2 protein is expressed at high levels in these T (14; 18) cells. B-cells, like all activated lymphocytes, die after they have done their jobs. This makes sure they do not linger after the threat has...
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...bring inflammation of the lungs, pleura, sclera of the eye, and pericardium. Nodules have been seen in the extensor tendons subcutaneously especially over the olecranon process. As has been reported,1 mechanistic paths to synovitis leading to this articular damage have shown tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) to take a significant part in joint inflammation responsible for the destruction. Therapies have developed to target TNF-α bringing a substantial impact on patient care. The exact etiology remains unclear in this autoimmune progressive disorder, but much is being looked at in search of an autoantigen or another triggering agent. According to Robinson,2 the importance of early diagnosis and subsequent treatment of RA is becoming more accepted. He goes on to say that accurate triaging is needed of primary care physicians to accomplish this, along with the expedition of rheumatologist’s assessments. Patients will typically complain of swollen joints, which upon assessment and confirmation by a general practitioner (GP) would be seen as urgent along with a raised C-reactive protein....
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...Biotechnology Biotechnology is the way in which man uses other organisms to make useful products. Yeast has been used for centuries to make beer, wine and bread. Moulds have been employed in cheese making, and bacteria in yogurt making. Single- Cell Protein (SCP) Microorganisms are single cell organisms which can be cultured to rapidly produce foodstuffs rich in protein, minerals and vitamins. Microorganisms are grown in large fermenters where nutrient, pH and temperature are constantly monitored and controlled. The products are: 1. Cells 2. Substances produced by cells. 3. Substances the cells make by fermenting the nutrient solution. Once these products have been ‘ harvested’ they are processed for marketing. Mycoprotein (SCP) Fusarium graminearum is a mould which is about 50% protein, high in fibre but low in fat and cholesterol-free, called mycoprotein (myco-:fungus), it is seen as a healthy substitute for meat. Fusarium is cultured in fermenters and marketed under t brand name ‘Quorn’. Enzymes Enzymes are highly important in industry and medicine. Microorganisms are cultured in fermenters, and they secrete enzymes which are separated from the culture medium and processed to be used in powdered or liquid form. Enzyme production is a rapidly growing industry. They are used in the following areas:- Food and agriculture Chemical industry Pharmaceutical industry Medicine Analytical Sciences Enzyme Production Microorganisms are used to produce enzymes...
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...Assignment 2: Gene Therapy Science 115 – Introduction to Biology March 1, 2014 Gene therapy is the transplantation of normal genes into cells in place of missing or defective ones in order to correct genetic disorders (Genetics home reference, n.d). This is a promising treatment for diseases such as inherited disorders, some types of cancer, and certain viral infections. The way this treatment works is by introducing genetic material into cells to compensate for genes that are abnormal or are not making beneficial proteins. Mutated genes can cause a protein to be faulty or missing, so a new copy of the gene is introduced to proper function of the protein. This is still a very risky technique and is under study to make sure it will be safe and effective. Currently, it is only being used to treat diseases such as severe combined immunodeficiency—also referred to as SCID or boy-in-the-bubble syndrome—where patients are unable to fight infection and die in childhood (Scientific American, n.d). A further break down of the processes of gene therapy will help to understand exactly how to treatment works. A gene cannot be inserted directly into the cell or it will not function. A carrier called a vector has been genetically engineered to deliver the gene to the cell. This vector can be used in two ways: in-the-body gene therapy and out-of-the-body gene therapy. In-the-body therapy can be injected or given intravenously (through an IV) directly into a specific tissue...
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...Cystatins are small human proteins that mainly function as protease inhibitors and are found throughout the body. Proteases are enzymes that begin to break down proteins. They can function intracellularly and extracellularly in order to inhibit their target cysteine enzymes (Ochieng, 2010). This allows the proteins to maintain the balance of protease inhibitors versus the proteins and regulate any damaging activity by the proteases. By sustaining the balance between proteases and cystatins found in the body, immunomodulatory functions, which are any factors that cause change within the normal immune system, not related to protease inhibition, can be regulated. This is very important because impairment in inflammatory responses can cause...
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...can activate the increase of p53 proteins while normally; the p53 protein level is available in lower quantities. To reduce the damaged DNA, p53 can repair DNA; it can perform growth arrest and initiate apoptosis (cell death). Description of p53 p53, which is also known as TP53 or a tumour protein, has its locus on the chromosome 17p13.1 and codes for a protein. The p53 protein is responsible for tumour suppression: it stops the formation or growth of cancerous...
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...Scrapie is a specific type of prion which could cause a central nervous system disease among sheep and goats. Prion is a kind of abnormally folded protein which has “extreme resistance to ionizing and ultraviolet.” (Prusiner, 2) According to current researches, scrapie prions are converted from normal cellular PrP by changing some α-helices into β-sheets. This converting process would change the solubility of the protein and also prevent the protein from digested by proteases. Since researcher has invented techniques to transfer scrapie prions from sheep into mice, scrapie has become the prion people studied the most. As Prusiner mentions in his book, transgenetic studies in prion discovered that “PrPSC acts as a template upon which PrPC is...
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...Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) falls in a class of viruses called retroviruses. HIV is a virus infects by invading certain cells of immune system, specifically the white blood cells called T- helper lymphocytes or CD4 cells ,which normally activates other cells in the immune system to fight infection,. HIV. . Over the course of HIV infection, the immune system deteriorated since HIV kills T-helper lymphocytes and the body cannot fight the virus or subsequent infections. Thus, infected person becomes vulnerable to other secondary infections and cancer that are much rarer in healthy inviduals. Person with HIV infection are categorized as those living with HIV and those with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) diagnosis. An AIDS diagnosis is made when the presence of HIV is confirmed and the CD4 count drops below 200 cells/mL or after an AIDS indicator condition is diagnosed. Regimens of antiviral drugs can slow the immune system deterioriation in infected patients and extend the life expectancy of those who have developed AIDS. The most common serotype is HIV-1 which is distributed worldwide The RNA viruses which are retroviruses enters CD4 cells by binding to a specialized site which is receptor on a body cell. Then, the virus loses its protective coat and releases RNA, its genetic material , and an enzyme known as reverse transcriptase . The enzyme reverse transcriptase contained inside the viral core to convert their RNA into a form that can enter the...
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...Phytochemical screening of the leaves extract All the solvent extracts were subjected to phytochemical screening and the results are presented in Table 1. Qualitative analysis of the leaf extract of A. muricata showed the presence of various phytochemicals. Methanolic extract of Annona muricata leaves showed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, coumarins, carbohydrates, glycosides, proteins, phenols, anthraquinones, steroids, phytosterols, cardiac glycosides and oil in the leaf. Carbohydrates, glycosides, proteins, terpenoids, phytosterols and cardiac glycosides were present in petroleum ether extract. Chloroform extract showed presence of coumarins, glycosides, steroids and phytosterols. Ethyl acetate extract showed the presence of flavonoids, glycosides, terpenoids, anthraquinones, steroids, phytosterols and oil in leaf. Coumarins, saponin, steroids, phytosterols, cardiac glycosides and oil in were present in acetone extracts whereas amino acid, tannins, and gums and mucilage were absent in all extracts. Among the different extracts, methanol extract of the leaf contained maximum phytochemicals. TLC profile of Annona muricata Thin layer chromatography of solvent extracts of Annona muricata leaf revealed (Table 2) the presence of maximum constituents in the methanol extract, as it exhibited maximum numbers of well resolved...
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...579 Atomic force microscopy and other scanning probe microscopies Helen G Hansma and Lía Pietrasanta The highlight of the past year is the unfolding and refolding of the muscle protein titin in the atomic force microscope. A related highlight in the intersection between experiment and theory is a recent review of the effects of molecular forces on biochemical kinetics. Other advances in scanning probe microscopy include entropic brushes, molecular sandwiches and applications of atomic force microscopy to gene therapy. Address Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA Current Opinion in Chemical Biology 1998, 2:579–584 http://biomednet.com/elecref/1367593100200579 © Current Biology Ltd ISSN 1367-5931 Abbreviations AFM atomic force microscopy/microscope SFM scanning force microscopy/microscope SICM scanning ion conductance microscopy/microscope SPM scanning probe microscopy/microscope STM scanning tunneling microscopy/microscope A new journal, Probe Microscopy, was launched in 1997 as a forum specifically devoted to the science and technology of SPM. AFM and SFM have been also newsworthy items in Science and Nature in the past year [14••,15•–17•,18••,19]. An introduction to AFM is covered well in a recent issue of Current Opinion in Chemical Biology, which describes and illustrates the design and mode of operation of AFM [4••]. The AFM images sample surfaces by raster-scanning a sharp tip back and forth over the surface. The tip is on...
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...accumulate in the lysosomes of cells. Some features of the disease include peripheral blood cytopenias, hepatosplenomegaly, bone disease, and even neurological manifestations (Thomas, Mehta, and Hughes 427). Gaucher’s disease can be classified into three types depending on the presence or absence of neurological features. Type I is characterized by the lack of central nervous system involvement (Thomas, Mehta, and Hughes 427). Type II is a severe neuronopathic form in infants with a life expectancy of less than two years (Thomas, Mehta, and Hughes 427). And lastly, Type III is a later onset of visceral involvement and survival into adulthood (Thomas, Mehta, and Hughes 427). As a consequence of an amino acid substitution in the resultant protein, its major substrate, N- acyl-sphingosyl-l- O- β-D-glucoside accumulates, is engulfed in macrophages, and clinically...
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...due to the differences between different people and the fact that everyone has a different genetic makeup. For example, Her2/neu genes code for a protein receptor, the Her2 receptor, which deals with cell growth and differentiation. Some polymorphisms in the Her2/neu genes can change how some women’s breasts grow, leading to possible tumors. Cancer can also cause mutations, making the Her2/neu genes overactive, leading to tumors. Thus, women with breast cancer are routinely checked for Her2/neu over-activity. Physicians prescribe a drug called Herceptin to these Her2/neu positive patients. Herceptin does not work as well with patients that are Her2/neu negative, and in fact can be toxic to these patients (1). Thus, genetic testing allows us to change treatments in a way that could be life saving. However, genetic knowledge can change a person’s life, either through ability to act preventatively or by paralyzing a carrier with the weight of a decision. Gene therapy occurs when genetic faults are repaired through transfer of therapeutic genes to specific cells of an individual. There are two main varieties of gene therapy. The first involves using viruses to deliver the new genes, while the other is stem cell therapy. The problem with gene therapy is that delivering the healthy gene to the cell can be tricky. Gene therapy is continuing to...
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...Protein Engineering Programme: B.Tech (Biotech) 6th Semester Course code: BIT 317 (3 credits) Unit 1 – Introduction Winter 2012-13 Dr. Everette Jacob Remington N, Ph.D Associate Professor & Ramalingaswami Fellow Biomedical Sciences Division & Gene Therapy Laboratory School of Biosciences and Technology VIT University, Vellore - 632 014, TN 1 Course objective To make the student familiarize with the basics, concepts and application of protein engineering Expected course outcome Explain the principles involved in the maintenance of protein structure Analyze the given protein structure and predict the sites to be engineered for altering/introducing a specific property 2 Course Outline Unit 1 – Introduction (9 hrs) Unit 2 – Protein Sequences and Properties (9 hrs) Unit 3 – Conformation of Proteins (9 hrs) Unit 4 – Principles and Approach (9 hrs) Unit 5 – Probing Structure for Molecular Recognition (9 hrs) 3 Unit 1 Introduction (9 hrs) Amino acid structure and properties Detection of the size of proteins Covalent structures in proteins Overview of chemical and biosynthesis of proteins Topogenesis Post-translational covalent modification of polypeptide chains 4 Amino Acids Amino acids are molecules containing an amine group, a carboxylic acid group, and a side-chain that is specific to each amino acid The amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate...
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...significantly improved. Certain proteins in the body such as Cas9 and CRISPR are responsible for the human genetics and the creation of the immune system. The ability to edit these proteins and change their make up can benefit people with many serious present and future health risks. When speaking on the topic of genetically engineering the human body many challenges arise such as, improving the specificity of the proteins at the rate at which genome-editing proteins modify the target DNA sequence. However, this huge challenge that science has yet to overcome is slowly being resolved by Chemistry Professor David Liu. Liu and his team have recently used a drug like molecule to create an engineered form of Cas9. Since this development the team is able to control the production of active Cas6 and modify targets in the human genome. "We showed it's possible to achieve efficient genome editing using this system, but because you can stop the production of active Cas9 by withholding the small molecule once it's had enough time to modify the target genes, you limit the opportunity for off-target genome modification." This discovery has raised many question and given science a huge step towards success. In order to increase the specific genome editing proteins, the proteins must recognize longer genetic sequences, which makes it harder for them to bind with other proteins that are off target. Next, Liu explains the importance of genome editing proteins and how they are not like traditional...
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