...Psychological Theories 1. The Self-fulfilling theory The self-fulfilling theory deals with a prediction that directly or indirectly causes it to become true, by the very terms of the prophecy itself, due to positive feedback between belief and behavior. In other words, it is based on the believe will come true because you will subconsciously and consciously act in ways that cause the event to happen. Self fulfilling theory was developed by Robert K. Merton, an American sociologist. It seeks to explain how a belief or expectation, whether true or not, affects the outcome of a situation or the behavior of a person or group. According to this theory, we form certain expectations of people or events and either consciously or unconsciously convey those expectations with various cues and signs, either in the way we talk or behave, that led to people adjusting their behavior to match those expectations. The result is that the original expectation becomes true (Tim, 2010). The self-fulfilling prophecy is, in the beginning, a false definition of the situation evoking a new behavior which makes the original false conception come 'true'. This specious validity of the self-fulfilling prophecy perpetuates a reign of error. For the prophet will cite the actual course of events as proof that he was right from the very beginning.[1] In other words, a prophecy, strongly held belief, or a delusion, declared as truth when it is actually false may sufficiently influence people, either...
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...what I want and need in life. Sometimes I do need more time to make that cut because I believe in good in people, tolerating their behavior or just giving them the benefit of the doubt. In our early adulthood, during the intimacy versus isolating stage we try to have some type of intimacy and be closer to others rather than to be isolated. We can be close as friends, romantic partners or just close to the people in our everyday environment and if we achieve that, rather than isolating ourselves from other people, will impact our personalities later in life. The advice I would give to someone who is going through early adulthood and is confused about feelings they have for a partner is to try to understand the attachment theory. Attachment theory explains why people behave they do in romantic relationships and it is very useful because it can improve the relationship...
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... The first thing everyone says to me when we meet is that I have a wonderful personality. I really never understood what a personality was until I looked it up and the definition according to www.apa.org/topics/personality/ and I found that it is the individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving. Everyone has their own personality, but not everyone is a good one. There are people that have personality disorders which means according to http://www.macmillanhighered.com/ that a person’s personality traits are inflexible and maladaptive across a broad range of situations. In other words the person thinks that their actions are normal when in reality they aren’t. Looking at the list of personality disorders that are in our book I noticed that OCD is on that list. I have a friend that actually has OCD. She has to have everything a certain way or she starts to freak out. We were sitting in math class one day and I started to gaze up at the ceiling and I noticed that the tiles were different and I thought it was very funny. So, I decided to tell her, not thinking about how she would react, and she stared at the ceiling for the rest of the class period looking at all the tiles that were not the same as the rest of the tiles in the room. The reason I believe that she has OCD is because her room is always clean and if something is not right we have to stop what we are doing and fix it before we can go on with our task. The definition of OCD according...
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...Psychological Theory of Development: Erik Erikson 1. Erik Erikson was the first psychologist to do what? Ans1. Erik Erikson was the first psychologist to describe predictable stages of human development from childhood through adulthood. In his Theory of Psychosocial Development, he depicted a series of eight stages in which an individual's identity emerges and matures. 2. How many stages are in Erikson's theory? Ans2. In Erik Erikson's theory of Psychosocial Development, he depicted a series of 8 stages in which an individual's identity emerges and matures. 3. Why are Erikson's psychosocial stages referred to as a "crisis"? Ans3. Erikson's psychosocial stages are referred to as a "crisis" because each stage presents a dilemma/crisis, in which the person is challenged to develop by new situation and circumstances in life. The individual needs to resolve the crisis. • When individuals resolve a crisis they developan ability which will help them with the challenge in the next stage. 4. What generally happens in each psychosocial stage? Ans4. Each stage presents a dilemma in which a person is challenged by new situations and circumstances in life. People are pushed through the stages by their biological clock and by the social clock of the society in which they live. The progress of the psychological clock influences the development of an identity. By resolving each dilemma successfully, the individual acquires basic strength needed to meet the challenges for the next stage...
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...Psychology Theories Much of what we know about human thought and behavior has emerged thanks to various psychology theories. For example, behavioral theories demonstrated how conditioning can be used to learn new information and behaviors. Psychology students typically spend a great deal of time studying these different theories. Some theories have fallen out of favor, while others remain widely accepted, but all have contributed tremendously to our understanding of human thought and behavior. By learning more about these theories, you can gain a deeper and richer understanding of psychology's past, present and future. Behavioral Theories Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Advocated by famous psychologists such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, behavioral theories dominated psychology during the early half of the twentieth century. Today, behavioral techniques are still widely used in therapeutic settings to help clients learn new skills and behaviors. * What is Behaviorism? * Classical Conditioning * How Pavlov Discovered Classical Conditioning * Principles of Classical Conditioning * Operant Conditioning * Schedules of Reinforcement * What is Behavior Analysis? * Stages of Change * Conditioned Taste Aversions Cognitive Theories Cognitive theories of psychology are focused on internal states, such as motivation, problem...
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...In learning theory, self development, adaptation and changes, occur through interplay of personal, behavioural, and environmental influences. As the triadic models suggested, people are producer of their own environment, not just products of it. Behavioural elicits social interaction which in turn can alter the course of behaviour. The environment which includes social interactions can alter personal characteristic. Behavioural explanations include classical, operant and vicarious conditioning. Classical conditioning may explain the association of the addictive behaviour with pleasure and excitement and so accounts for the initiation of the addictive behaviour. Operant conditioning explains behaviour in terms of rewards and punishments, and partial reinforcement can be a powerful factor in the maintenance of addictions. The social learning theory helps to explain why people start to gamble. Gambling can be initiate when an individual watches someone else gambling and winning, observing others getting rewarded for their behaviour. The expectation of winning leads a person to make the first bet, then the excitement become associated with betting and reinforces that behaviour. Behaviours with positive reinforcement are likely to be repeated. Operant conditioning proposes that any behaviour that produces a consequence that the individual finds rewarding, then becomes more frequent. Griffiths argues that gamblers playing slot machine may become addicted because of the...
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...MOODULE 2: THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELLING THE BEHAVIOURIST THEORY OF COUNSELLING Introduction to Theories A theory can be defined as a systematic way of explaining a fact or an event. It refers to procedure that has been put forward empirically tested that explains a situation as a phenomena. Importance of Theory in Counselling Theories help a counselor to; • Explain the existence of a behaviour by understand if how it’s conceptualized, perpetuated and its manifestations. • Theories also help a counsellor to predict behaviour. The prediction of behaviour is quite important in the cases where a client manifests destructive behaviour. • Finally theories also help a counsellor to control behaviour. This is also important in cases where behaviours are destructive. Each theory has stipulated techniques which are meant to control behaviour. Types of Theories There are several types of theories which helps a counsellor to understand, predict and control behaviour. But for this course, emphasis will be placed on the following theories: • Psychological Theory • Behaviour Theory • Poison Centred Theory • Cognitive Behavioural Theory THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY Background Before the development of the psychological view point in terms of understanding, the human behaviour, in the late 18th Century and Mid 19th Century by Mesmer, Dr. John Breur, Dr. Jean Charcot among others. Psychological disorders and disturbances was mainly looked...
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...evaluate the contributions of psychological research (theories and/or studies) to our understanding of the formation of relationships (24 marks) One theory of formation of relationships that has contributed to our understanding of the formation of relationships, is the reward/need satisfaction theory. Byrne and Clove suggest that this theory means mutual attraction occurs when each partner meets the other persons need through operant conditioning. This might be the need for financial satisfaction or love etc. The rewards and needs can come from various factors. One of these factors is proximity which describes the distance between you and the potential partner. If the proximity is close then the reward gained is less effort being put in in having to see them. Another factor similarity refers to how similar you are to the potential partner in regards to the interests you both share i.e. religion, beliefs, music etc. The more similar you are the high the reward of enjoying each other’s company. A last factor is physical attractiveness referring to how attractive you think the potential partner is. A supporting study was done by Cate et al where he asked 337 individuals to assess their existing relationships in terms of reward level and satisfaction. The results found that reward levels was the most superior out of all other factors in determining relationship satisfaction. This therefore increases the reliability of the ‘Need/Satisfaction Theory’ and does explain why we form...
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...There are many theories for what may cause people such as Donald Trump to experience obsessive-compulsive disorder. However, scientists have still not been able to give a definite answer for what causes the condition. Many psychological theories about OCD have been developed. One theory, known as the behavioral theory, suggests that people with OCD develop patterns or form rituals in order to avoid and help them deal with the things that they fear. For example, if a person gets in a car crash, he/she might either avoid driving altogether to escape their fear or develop rituals, such as waiting a long amount of time at stop signs, to ease their fear. Because these solutions the fear are temporary, the fear is never actually dealt with. This can cause the person to become addicted to dealing their fear in these ways. Another psychological theory is known as the cognitive theory. This theory is focused on the idea that people with OCD have the tendency to over exaggerate and distort unpleasant thoughts that they have. For instance, if a person without OCD has an unpleasant thought about germs, he/she may worry about it for a...
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...| Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations | | Vacancy Announcement No: FAO/31/2012 | Issued on: 2nd August 2012 | | Deadline For Application: 16th August 2012 | | | Position Title: | Data Analyst (1 Position) | Grade Level: | SC-4 | CONTRACT TYPE: | Service Contract | Duty Station: | Nairobi with possible travel to Somalia | Organizational Unit: | FAO-Somalia | Duration: | 3 Months with possible extension | Eligible Candidates: | KENYA & SOMALI NATIONALS ONLY | Anticipated start date: | September 2012 | Under the overall guidance of the FAO Officer in Charge for Somalia, the direction of the Emergency and Rehabilitation Coordinator, and the direct supervision of the Monitoring and Evaluation Officer (designated leader for the monitoring team), the Data Analyst will be responsible for monitoring project outcomes against work plan and targets, including those of the Service Providers for the overall FAO Somalia Programmes. Specifically, he/she will: * Assist in collecting data and information (namely statistical) on the activities of each component of the FAO emergency and programme components * Assist in compiling and analyzing the data for each components of the emergency and programmes * Design and develop questionnaires...
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...Adrian L. Reaves The Comparison and Contrast of Psychological Theories American InterContinental University Abstract This writing will provide the reader with a better understanding of psychology in the world today. The author would do this by comparing three separate theories of psychology. The theories that will be discussed are behaviorism, culture and diversity, and humanistic. The author will give a short description of each prospective. This will be done by defining each prospective, and elaborating on their function within the world of psychology. The author will also offer examples that are representations of each prospective. The author will then compare the three perspectives. This will be done by outlining the similarities and the differences of to three perspectives the author will then demonstrate how each prospective influences the world of psychology today. The Comparison and Contrast of Psychological Theories The world of psychology is that of multiple disciplines and various courses of study. Each discipline undertakes the task of explaining everything regarding the human psyche from the evolutionary to structuralism. In this paper, we are going to talk about three specific disciplines; those disciplines being behaviorism, culture and diversity, and humanistic. The primary focus of behaviorism is the observation of behavior, and not so much about thought or feelings. Within this theory it is believed that external behavior can be measured both objectively...
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...Mysta D’struction offers free Wi-Fi to residents in his building and he also obtained personally identifiable information on elder clients after five years of representation. This white collar criminal that falls under the strain theory psychological theory, is not a member of any specific criminal organization (McAfee, 2015). David simply uses social platforms as a distribution device giving him the ability to obtain an individual’s contacts, location, and even business activities. Theft of personal property refers to the act of using an internet to steal an individual’s property or to obstruct someone’s use and enjoyment of property. Theft of financial and/or personal information through computer use for making its fraudulent or other illegal use, which include hacking into a bank’s...
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...Why do our minds work the way that they do? Many theories have been developed in an attempt to answer this question. Many studies have also been conducted to investigate, prove and disprove these said theories. The information gained from these investigations into the inner workings of the human mind, have assisted in the construction of more effective methods for educating children and different methods for treating issues such as fears (Gonzalez-DeHass, 2012). In this essay, I will focus on two developmental theories that have proven to be significant to my life, namely, these are Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory (1928) and Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (1977). The former manifested in relation to my fear of spiders while the latter correlates to my humorous personality. Both of these theories will be discussed in further detail and applied to myself below. The first developmental theory I will discuss is Ivan Pavlov’s Classical conditioning theory. Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who created an artificial exterior stomach pouch for dogs which he used to conduct research on their digestive systems (Gonzalez-DeHass, 2012). Classical Conditioning Theory, or Pavlovian conditioning (1928), was an accidental discovery that Pavlov made in his observations while working with these dogs. He noticed that the dogs would begin to salivate in the presence of the lab technician who fed them even when there was no food present (McLeod, 2013). Further experimentation...
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...Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development Theory MGMT. 8010 – Management in Human and Societal Development Winter Quarter, 2011 Dr. Kenneth C. Sherman, Professor Everett Cordy, everett.cordy@waldenu.edu Student ID Number: A00186883 Walden University December 9, 2011 Abstract In this exercise, I explore the Psychosocial Development Theory of Erik Erikson. An explanation is given as to why this particular theory was selected for focus, and why Erickson appeals to me, both personally and professionally. Lastly, five (5) scholarly resources (in APA format), that I will consult as I begin to explore Erickson, are appended. Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development Theory I chose Erik Erikson as the theorist to study. I chose Erik Erikson because his psychosocial development theory is applicable to a wide-range of management situations where understanding how personality and behavior are developed and manifested is valued. I am interested to find out if Erikson’s development model can be applied in my research fields of interests of Employment Law and Conflict Resolution Management. Please find attached hereto a list of five (5) scholarly sources that I will consult as I begin to explore Erik Erikson. References Cornett, C. (2000). Ideas and identities: The life and work of Erik Erikson/Identities architect: A biography of Erik H. Erikson, Clinical...
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...The Psychological Contract' is an increasingly relevant aspect of workplace relationships and wider human behaviour. Descriptions and definitions of the Psychological Contract first emerged in the 1960s, notably in the work of organizational and behavioural theorists Chris Argyris and Edgar Schein. Many other experts have contributed ideas to the subject since then, and continue to do so, either specifically focusing on the the Psychological Contract, or approaching it from a particular perspective, of which there are many. The Psychological Contract is a deep and varied concept and is open to a wide range of interpretations and theoretical studies. Primarily, the Psychological Contract refers to the relationship between an employer and its employees, and specifically concerns mutual expectations of inputs and outcomes. The Psychological Contract is usually seen from the standpoint or feelings of employees, although a full appreciation requires it to be understood from both sides. Simply, in an employment context, the Psychological Contract is the fairness or balance (typically as perceived by the employee) between: how the employee is treated by the employer, and what the employee puts into the job. The words 'employees' or 'staff' or 'workforce' are equally appropriate in the above description. At a deeper level the concept becomes increasingly complex and significant in work and management - especially in change management and in large organizations...
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