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“玻璃天花板” 效应研究综述


卢王景磨玉峰副教授(桂林电子科技大学广西桂林541004)



中图分类号:F275

文献标识码:A
术工作时间比较短,因此薪资无法与男性

内容摘要:女性职业生涯发展研究是
职业生涯研究的重要组成部分,而大
多数女性在其职业生涯发展中都会遇
到“玻璃天花板”效应这一升迁障碍。
本文从“玻璃天花板”的成因、造成的

男性那般敬业、女性不够坚强或太情绪化、

相提并论.另外研究也发现女性在较高的

女性不愿加班或接受不正常的工作时间、

专业阶层的代表性不足。Guy(1994)曾

女性的侵略性不够或是侵略心太强、女性

解释性别刻板印象会造成“玻璃天花板”、

无法果断决策等,这些都是造成女性在面

玻璃墙、泥泞地板等。而阻碍女性的升迁

对升迁时遭受不公平对待的原因。

影响和打破“玻璃天花板”障碍等方面

发展。因此他认为性别平衡应是组织必须

通过对上述文献的回顾,可以看出企

对国内外女性在职业生涯发展中的

努力达成的目标。Lynch&Post(1996)

业中女性升迁障碍的因素有三部分。社会

“玻璃天花板”效应研究的现状进行了

曾讨论“玻璃天花板”现象的本质及目前

整体面:性别刻板印象、成见和偏差因素;

综述。

争论的相关议题。他们认为男性和女性工

组织内部结构:组织内部的升迁、组织气

资差距近年来已有缩小的趋势,而“玻璃

候、输送带障碍、培育辅导过程、考绩、训

天花板”效应是受到年龄、性别与资历的

练方式;政府:政府缺乏持续而有效的监督

企业当中,因受到传统观念的影

影响。Mani I 1997)曾分析美国联邦主管

企业执行就业平等法的规定,及相关打破

响.女性在工作、升迂方面多少都

人员的职业生涯和特征,并探讨影响其成

。玻璃天花板”的议题与信息缺少研究等。

会受到性别歧视的影响,这对于

功的有利与不利因素,他提到在公共政策、

女性的职业升迁来说并不公平,因此有学

个人特质以及组织文化均会影响到女性的

者开始着手研究,并称此现象为“玻璃天

升迁发展。

关t词:女性职业生涯

玻璃天花板

职业发展



花板”效应(glass ceiling effect)。

“玻璃天花板”造成的影响
在“玻璃天花板”的后果研究文献方

Wilz和Savage也指出,“玻璃天花板”

面.Eve rett.ThO rne&Danehowe r

“玻璃天花板”基本涵义为:女性或是

的形成有两个主要的因裹性别刻板印象。

(1996)探讨两性对于女性担任主管的态

少数族群没办法晋升到企业或组织高层。

女性被视为缺乏管理性格,不能胜任高层

度有何差异,并提出企业若存在“玻璃天

并非是因为其能力或经验不够,或是不想

管理职务,甚至被界定为情感性的提供者:

花板”障碍,会影响到女性主管的职业生

获得其职位,而是一些针对女性和少数族

组织制度设计。因为科层组织由男性建立.

涯发展。另外。何委娥(1992)以已婚职

群在升迁方面,组织似乎设下了一层障碍,

工作本质是理性的、客观的,男性是主要

业妇女为对象.发现升迂障碍会影响职业

这层障碍有时甚至是无形的。因此,如果

的法规制定者,整个科层组织宛如男性世

生涯发展、生活满意度与工作满意度,并

组织中的女性或少数族群在职业生涯有所

界,女性是与这个组织疏远的、陌生的。从

说明职业生涯与工作满意度之间的关系。

发展阶梯慢慢往上攀升,尤其快要接近顶

以上的分析得知,整个组织是存在性别不

Guy(1994)研究发现性别刻板印象会造

端时,自然而然就会感觉到一层看不见的

平等的组织气候,成见与偏见加注在女性

成“玻璃天花板”、玻璃墙、泥泞地板等,

障碍阻隔在他们上面,所以他们的职位往

就业者身上,导致女性因为性别束缚而产

从而阻碍女性职业生涯发展。

往只能上升到某一阶段后止步。本文从“玻

生升迁障碍。

从以上研究可知,“玻璃天花板”现象

璃天花板”的成因、造成的影响和打破“玻

王大方(1996)的研究显示,企业中

不仅影响女性职业生涯发展,甚至也影响着

璃天花板”障碍等几个方面对国内外女性

的高阶主管被询及女性升迁的障碍时,他

其工作和生活满意度,进而也会影响女性的

在职业生涯发展中的“玻璃天花板”效应

们所指出的原因包括:成见太深、管理方

工作表现,这对女性职业生涯的确是危机。

研究文献进行了整理归纳。

面觉得让女性参与决策太冒险、缺乏事业
规划及适当的位置、女性被排斥于非正式

“玻璃天花板”形成原因

信息交流网络之外、男性同事的蓄意作对

打破“玻璃天花板”障碍的
对策

有关“玻璃天花板”起因的研究文献非

等。根据统计资料得知,造成女性升迁障

Eyring&Stead(1998 J的研究中就

常多,如Fisher,Motowidlo&Werner

碍的因素中成见名列第一,有81%的受访

打破“玻璃天花板”的障碍作了一定阐述。

(1993)曾提到女性法律专业人员的薪资

主管认为既定的刻板印象阻碍了女性在企

譬如有些企业中的高层人员认为女性缺乏

与男性有显著差异.其原因在于女性的学

业中的升迁;而这些成见包括:女性不像

对职业生涯的承诺、进取心和承担风险的

58膏量时代(原名‘商业经济研究>)200B年34期

意愿,因此把直线主管或中高阶主管的位

理的情况时.可将男性管理模式作为参照

源充分开发利用。推动社会两性平等和社

子交由女性来担任会有风险。此外,如果

标准对象。

会经济发展,最终构建和谐社会。

女性从事企业中高阶主管的工作。女性的
管理与领导风格就很重要。女性参与式管
理的管理风格,在有些男性看来是由于缺



结论
通过对相关文献的回顾整理。可以看

1.游子慧.影响玻璃天花板效应之因

素一以信息服务业为例之探索性研究

乏权力主义与信心才会表现出这样的管理

出在组织内女性升迁过程中存在一定的障

方式;但就另一方面来看.有些女性主管

碍,也就是。玻璃天花板”效应。“玻璃天

会采取雄性作风式的领导风格,可能会使

花板”现象不仅影响女性职业生涯发展,甚

2.胡肇惠.台湾企业女性经理人玻璃

男性部属认为她们缺乏“雌性温柔作风”,

至也影响着其工作和生活满意度.进而也

天花板认知程度与其工作满足关联性之

研究一以个人特征与师徒关系为干扰变

有时会觉得她们的行事作风咄咄逼人。因

会影响着女性的工作表现。因此.从社会

此男性部属会感觉到有压力。所以针对上

层面、组织层面和个人层面共同努力,打

述这些情形,这篇研究的建议在于:包括

ID】.国立中央大学资讯管理研究所硕士
论文.2004

破“玻璃天花板”效应,促进女性人力资

项【D】.中原大学企业管理学系硕士论文,
2004

发展一套系统性、持续性的程序来保障女

性员工升迁的渠道,以及建立持续性计划
去定位高潜力的女性在职业发展中的角色,
并帮助她们成长。

C雹目围日

得确定企业在同学校专业合作过程中更加

较容易让双方认同。但校企双方价值取向

艰难;还有一种处于校企游离状态,产学

是不一致的,大学以知识创新为目标,企

研合作浮于形式,缺乏实质性的合作内容,

要的,因为这样企业组织才有机会招募到

业以获取最大利润为目的,这是当前产学

学校和企业出于各自的角度。以追求社会

有潜力的女性员工来帮助企业成长。H…

研合作中存在的一个问题。成果的分享是

影响,提升知名度为基本点,,双方均处于

(1993)在其论文中提出几项减少“玻璃天

另一个实际的问题,企业比较希望通过最

独立的地位,缺乏相互的约束和支持.是

花板”障碍的方法,如职业生涯发展、招

低的成本动作。与高校建立长期、稳定、深

非常有限的合作。

聘措施、培训、沟通、关系网络等。在职业

入的“产学研”联系.保证在第一时间内

在学校主导的产学研活动中,总体上

生涯发展方面。不论男女性都需要建立一

获得高校的科研开发信息,从而以最经济

企业的参与都是有限的,企业对高校的依

套正式化的职业生涯发展规划和发展程序

的手段获得新项目或新产品的转化权利。

赖程度高,企业合作的高校往往是国内的

来帮助员工成长:而招聘措施就是招聘有

不管存在什么样的情况,此类校企合作模

重点大学,在这一过程中,企业的投入还

潜力的女性员工担任专业或管理职位以帮

式最为广泛。

不能有效提升企业自身的科研能力。企业

如何减少“玻璃天花板”障碍是很重

助企业成长发展;培训就是培训女性员工
学习适当的技能,也提供资深员工晋升的
经验;当然,时时刻刻保持沟通也是重要

学校主导型产学研中的企业
角色定位

往往是不得已而为之。
综上所述,笔者认为。建立股份制的
合作企业,是保障企业和高校合作的最有

的,因为经由沟通传递信息,这样才能使

高校产学研活动自成体系,有专门的

效形式。股份制有助于建立企业与高校问

女性了解企业的目标与计划,使她们跟得

科研团队,有丰富的科技成果,甚至拥有

的平等地位;高校与企业通过资金、技术

上组织发展的脚步,同时结合薪资与绩效

以成果转化为主题的校办企业,而且运作

等形式参股,确定各自的份额,自一开始

使女性负有使命去完成自己的工作。此外.

正常,效益明显,高校处于强势地位。与

就解决了利益分配这一核心问题;有利于

现在许多员工愈来愈重视关系网络的紧密

此同时,学校从主动服务社会角度,利用

摆脱企业和高校的不同的价值取向的纠缠,

程度,一个好的关系网络能鼓励女性建立

自身的优势,为企业提供技术支持和科技

以完全企业化管理理念和运作机制,直面

一个良好的社会关系网络.使得她们随时

攻关服务,通过与企业合作,拓宽经费渠

市场,参与社会经济的竞争,从中实现利

都可以掌握最新的信息,同时在工作面临

道,实现良性循环。

润共享,风险共担;股份制有利于实现科

困难的时候。也有人会帮助她们面对并解

企业从提升自身的地位和品牌形象角

研、教育、生产分工下的资源优势上的协

决问题。所以。在企业或组织中绝不能失

度,扩大社会知名度,按照学校的愿望,参

同与集成化,强化技术创新上、中、下游

去任何一位有发展潜力的女性,不但如此,

与学校教学或科研某些环节的活动。企业

的对接与耦合。符合社会生产力发展和技

更要让她们担任管理职位或中高阶主管,

通过提供资金注入.寻求校方的科研团队

术创新规律,也是很好的技术创新机制,值

以发挥她们的专才。因为她们会成为企业

解决企业急需解决的生产工艺和流程。以

得相关高校和企业加以探索实践。

的核心竞争力之一。

及产品研发的瓶颈,主动寻求校方合作,这



另外,Rains.Townsend&Mattis

类企业由于自身存在较明显的软肋,往往

(1 998)曾提出打破“玻璃天花板”的策略,

抱着较迫切的心情寻求高校的合作,由于

如女性主管必须形成一套让男性同事或部

专业对接要求高,甚至于高校没有相关的

属觉得自在的专业领导风格,并适应男性

专业,高校为了企业的要求。而不得不组

的一点想法.教育与文化发展新论,2007

占优势的企业文化或环境,当遇到需要处

织专门的力量进行攻关,投入的高成本.使

(12)

1刘德平.提高中小型科技企业创新
能力的对策与建议.特区经济,2005(3)
2.张金华.关于高校产学研办学模式

全国贸易经济类核心期刊

59

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...1. Knowledge of the body’s response to stress, explain why you are likely to have experienced these changes. The stem refers to the body of responding to a short term stressor, were the body is involved with preparing itself for either fight or fight. The release of adrenaline is responsible for increasing the heart rate and faster breathing and the dry mouth is linked to the digestive system ‘shutting down’. 2. What does figure 1 tell you about the relationship between stress and illness? The graph (figure 1) shows that there is a positive correlation between stress and illness. Also it shows that the more stress a person has, the more days off work they take due to illness. 2b. Outline one strength and one weakness of using correlation on stress research. Strength: Weakness: Strength: can study relationship between variables that occur naturally. Can measure things that cannot be manipulated experimentally. Can suggest trends that can lead to experiments. Weakness: It is not possible to say that one thing causes another. Just because there is a correlation between stress scores and days off it does not mean that stress caused people to take days off work, or there may be another variable connecting them. Elaboration through the use of an appropriate example can also receive credit. Any other appropriate answer can get credit. One mark for a brief outline of strength/limitation and a further mark for elaboration. For example, cannot say one thing causes another (1...

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...Delicadeza : A Thread of Filipino Values The Filipino value system arises from our culture or way of life, our distinctive way of becoming human in a particular place and time. We speak of Filipino values in a good sense. Delicadeza, good manners and right conduct? There are still people with delicadeza. Delicadeza is derived from the Spanish word delicado which means delicate, fragile, easily broken, irreplaceable and precious. Delicadeza was once placed in Philippine culture, it suggests gentleness the exquisite qualities of sensitivity, tactfulness and refinement. All these virtues are born from a sense of propriety and decency like doing the right thing when no one is looking. Filipinos are known for this positive trait, it is an important value that parents should pass on to their children, having delicadeza means your integrity and honor are in tact. You insist on doing the right thing even when people aren’t watching, because to you it’s not about letting the whole world know, it’s about believing that there is a correct way of doing things, acting your values and not taking advantage of every opportunity for self-gain and selfishness. Delicadeza means the sensitiveness of someone, it says refined responsive bearing of somebody contrary to see shamelessness. It even conveys elementary good manners and right conduct, ladylike actuation and gentlemanly behavior, in other words, “delicadeza” stands for sensibility on the part of an individual such that it sees and...

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...Spirituality is signified in having an attachment to religious values, or matters of the spirit rather than material or worldly interests. Spirituality is important to our lives in all aspects to have a balanced live. Our mind body and soul have to be in harmony with each other, you can experience being spiritual when you enjoy listening to a beautiful piece of music, looking at an amazing work of art or even reading an inspirational book or poem. Stress is our body’s way of responding to any kind of demand. It can be caused by both good and bad experiences. Of course there is a relationship between stress management and spiritually. This can help you feel a sense of purpose in life. Shaping your spirituality may help uncover what’s most meaningful in your life. By understanding what’s important, you can focus less on the unimportant things and eliminate stress. In another aspect of stress management and spirituality is how congruent your actions and behaviours are in relationship to who you believe you are at your core. It’s said that the body was designed to function best when it is balanced. Here are the balanced points: spiritually, physically emotionally and thoughts. When you are balanced, your actions and deeds your behaviour, are in perfect shape with the belief and the value system. But when you’re imbalanced you notice your changes in your verbal and non-verbal behaviours, such as: Bullying Gossiping, Judgement and also rolling of the eyes and even walking...

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...Course Description This is the first half of the Anatomy and Physiology for majors, based upon “Fundamentals of Human Anatomy and Physiology” by Frederic H. Martini textbook (ninth edition), you will study the basics of cells, tissues and some organs as integumentary system, skeletal system, muscle system and Nervous system. It is indispensable and Mandatory for the class to have Course Compass My Lab/Mastering as a tool provided with your book package at Miami Dade College Bookstore. Use the following course ID: cendon57714 Please make sure that you read everything in this handout because this is our contract and agreement with the rules of this class The above course links to the following Learning Outcomes: * Communicate effectively using listening, speaking, reading and writing skills. * Solve problems using critical thinking and scientific reasoning. * Use computers and emerging technologies effectively. * Describe how natural systems function and recognize the impact of humans on the environment. | This course does not have pre-requisites, but it is very important to have background in Chemistry and Biology. | | Corequisite(s) BSC 2085 lab | Course Competencies: Competency 1: The Sciences of Anatomy and Physiology Upon successful completion of this course, the student will be able to understand the meaning of these two terms by: 1.1 Defining anatomy and physiology, and explaining how they are related. 1...

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...------------------------------------------------- Course Syllabus US101 INTRODUCTION TO UNIVERSITY STUDIES Course Start Date: 05/03/10 Course End Date: 07/04/10                   Please print a copy of this syllabus for handy reference. Whenever there is a question about what assignments are due, please remember this syllabus is considered the ruling document. Copyright Copyright ©2009 by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved. University of Phoenix© is a registered trademark of Apollo Group, Inc. in the United States and/or other countries. Microsoft©, Windows©, and Windows NT© are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation in the United States and/or other countries. All other company and product names are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective companies. Use of these marks is not intended to imply endorsement, sponsorship, or affiliation. Edited in accordance with University of Phoenix© editorial standards and practices. Facilitator Information                                                                                                       Tamirra Hoye thoye13@email.phoenix.edu (University of Phoenix) Tamirra.Hoye@ymail.com (Personal) 602-327-3606 (MST) Facilitator Availability will be online at various times throughout the day (around my lunchtime at work and again in the evenings). I am always present in our classes on five of seven days during the online week. I typically like to reserve Saturday...

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...Here is my evaluation of Melissa, a 25 year old woman who was brought into my care unconscious and unresponsive after an automobile accident. When she was given an EEG there was no evidence that the mammalian part of her brain had any action potentials. With further investigation, we have seen AP in her primitive or reptilian part of her brain and that is why Melissa is still breathing with help of respirator and her heart rate is within normal range. Her Cortex obtained major damage in her frontal, parietal,occipital and temporal lobes and shut down all neuron activity in Melissa’s brain. Meaning her brain is producing no electrical impulses, or impulses that indicate it can-support life. A person in this state has no thoughts, and no chance of ever having thoughts again, and can only be kept alive with constant care by medical staff and machinery. Melissa has brain death and will no longer be able to be herself ever again she is accentually dead, as the Melissa you know died the minute her Cortex was damaged and her neurons stopped producing electrical currents. This patient is only breathing and her heart beating because the reptilian part of the base of the brain is still sending out life supporting neurons to keep these basic functions going. This is not to be mistaken for a coma,if she was lucky enough to endure this kind of brain damage, she may be able to stay alive and regain some of her traits that make up who Melissa is. There are no guarantees that if Melissa did...

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...CHAPTER 1: The Science of Psychology 1. Who founded the first Psychology laboratory and when was it (HINT: it was in Germany)? What else was he known for? a. First Lab 1879- Leipzig, Germany. Wilhelm Wundt, founder of psychology as discipline. Conscious experience and building blocks, trained many early psychologists 2. Identify the following, and the one or two main names (if applicable): Structuralists, Functionalists, Gestalt Psychology, Behaviorism Psychoanalysis, Humanistic Psychology, Cognitive Psychology b. Structuralists: Titchener- Wundt’s student. Wanted to examine the structure of mind and organization of basic elements of sensations, feelings, and images. “Structure of the mind” Example: I see a square as composed of four separate lines. Introspection: observing ones own conscious reactions. c. Functionalism- William James- first American psychologist. “Mental associations allow us to benefit from previous experience.” Deals with function, what does consciousness does to us, what is the purpose etc. d. Gestalt psychology- Max Wertheimer. Objects are well-organized structures, whole objects instead of parts. Ex. A square is a Square e. Behaviorism psychoanalysis – Sigmund Freud. Founded psychoanalysis in early 1900s, focused on unconscious thoughts in determining behavior. Psychoanalysis- feelings come from a hidden place in your mind called unconscious. f. Behaviorism- John Watson, B.F. Skinner. We can predict behaviors...

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...Spirituality is signified in having an attachment to religious values, or matters of the spirit rather than material or worldly interests. Spirituality is important to our lives in all aspects to have a balanced live. Our mind body and soul have to be in harmony with each other, you can experience being spiritual when you enjoy listening to a beautiful piece of music, looking at an amazing work of art or even reading an inspirational book or poem. Stress is our body’s way of responding to any kind of demand. It can be caused by both good and bad experiences. Of course there is a relationship between stress management and spiritually. This can help you feel a sense of purpose in life. Shaping your spirituality may help uncover what’s most meaningful in your life. By understanding what’s important, you can focus less on the unimportant things and eliminate stress. In another aspect of stress management and spirituality is how congruent your actions and behaviours are in relationship to who you believe you are at your core. It’s said that the body was designed to function best when it is balanced. Here are the balanced points: spiritually, physically emotionally and thoughts. When you are balanced, your actions and deeds your behaviour, are in perfect shape with the belief and the value system. But when you’re imbalanced you notice your changes in your verbal and non-verbal behaviours, such as: Bullying Gossiping, Judgement and also rolling of the eyes and even walking...

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