Name
Professor
Course
Class
Date
Public Administration
Question 1
Heclo’s concept of Issue networks states that government policies emerge from an interaction of a large number of participants who have varied degree of dependence and commitment on each other. The issue networks is the opposite of the Iron triangle theory. According to (Stillman 408), the Iron triangle is the interaction among the elected members of Congress, career bureaucrats and the interest groups. The iron triangle proposes that policies are made when the Congress passes favorable legislations; which are to be implemented by the bureaucrats and then supported by the special interest groups. In the Issue networks, the primary interest of the participants is either emotional or intellectual.
The National School Lunch Program (NSLP) was initially slated to feed malnourished school children whistle supporting the farmers. However, in the 1990s, the program was transformed to an initiative to promoting sound nutrition among the youth. This transformation process is what is referred to as “reinvention” (Stillman 410).
To implement this program, there has to be interplay between political and technocratic interests. During the reinvention, several health and consumer advocates came out to support the change while some were against. The operation of this policy is a complex one involving several interest groups, consumer advocacy groups and professional associations. The system starts with the legislations and regulations; ranging from the producers of the food, the delivery process to the schools’ administrators and to the food service personnel. The workers who prepare the food and serve the students are also part of the National School Lunch Program.
(Stillman 412) has illustrated how the National School Lunch Program is in line with Heclo’s thesis on Issue networks. This is through the demonstration that the entire industry has come out to lobby and ensure its implementation. A vast number of agencies, legislative committees, consumer advocacy groups, interest groups and the media have all built around the National School Lunch Program. Within the Congress, there are two committees in charge of the program; the Education and Labor Committee which is the authorizing committee responsible for the NSLP in the House of Representatives and the House Committee on Agriculture which plays an oversight role of the NSLP operations. In the senate, the Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry committee is in charge of allocating the funds for the program. Thus, a scenario is created where the Education and Labor Committee has authority over the programme while the Agriculture Committee approves the funding of the program.
Organizations that represent the health and nutrition sector in the program normally look at the nutrition content of the meals served. They ensure that the children learn sound health and nutritional practices and also that the personnel involved have the required credentials in the health sector. On the other hand, the Consumer advocacy groups look at the program from the recipients’ perspective, they ensure that the program meets its purpose in serving the poor students. According to (Stillman 414), Food Research and Action Center (FRAC) is one consumer advocacy group, FRAC is primarily concerned with the nutritional value of the meals served to students. This organization creates public awareness through the media on nutritional topics. FRAC also formed the Child Nutrition Forum; a coalition which brings together the consumer advocacy groups, professionals and special interest groups to draft legislations necessary to manage the National School Lunch Program.
(Stillman 416) presents a complex interaction of various industry players to ensure the implementation and successful operation of the National School Lunch Program. This is a demonstration of how the “Reinventing School Lunch” policy illustrates the Heclo’s concept of Issue networks.
The implication of the Issue networks theory to the training of public administrators cannot be underestimated. According to (Stillman 418), features of modern governance like devolution, privatization and deregulation have made these times the most prime times for public administrators. These have made it necessary for public administrators to train in the field of political science. For a long time, bureaucratic politics focused more on behavior of agencies other than the structure. However, the Heclo’s concept of Issue networks has brought into the political field the desire to focus more on results. This is because; for any government to run smoothly, then the citizens must receive the worth of their money which they pay in form of taxes.
Political scientists normally take time to provide predictions, like how the voters will vote. An interaction comes in when the public administrators give prescriptions. Public administrators explain the prediction made by the political scientist. According to (Stillman 419), for the right prescription to be made, then public administrators need some background knowledge in political science. For effective administration, good relations should be created between the administrators and the politically elected leaders. The administrators implement the policies and ideas of the leaders. (Stillman, 420) states that “Making political science without adding public administration is like making bricks without straw”.
The development of sectionalism in the field of public administration has made it a complex discipline. For example, the effects of technology, health, human resource and budgeting have all made public administration and made it an interdisciplinary field. These effects have brought an alteration to the roles and tasks of public administrators. Initially, public administrators would serve party and personage interests; but since the forwarding of the Heclo’s thesis of the concept of Issue networks, administrators have settled to serving without fear or favor. This is because of the awareness created by various players in the field of public service such as pressure from interest and consumer groups.
Heclo’s theory on Issue networks suggests that the players in policy formulation have emotional or intellectual interest rather than material gain (Stillman, 422). This shifts the public service from the ‘ruler mindset’ to that of service delivery. The primary goal of initial governments was to do what was right rather than knowing what was right. Currently, public administrators are not only required to execute policies and programs, but are also involved in their formulation. The issue networks seeks that the public administrators understand the complex social choices they make. This requires a public administrator to have a background on sociology and traditional norms so as to be more efficient.
As far as these implications are concerned, public administrators do not need to seek alternative types of jobs. The implications only alter the manner and extent to which public administrators carry their mandate.
Heclo’s concept on issue networks has made me realize how wide the discipline is. It has opened my thinking to see beyond the Iron Triangle theory. To be an effective public administrator, I should be ready to embrace inclusivity.
Question 2
In his theory of responsible governance, Friedrich argues that the administrator or administration play a very critical role that cannot be replaced or even directed by the legislature. According to (Stillman 435), Friedrich maintains that the administrator makes the government responsive to the needs of the citizens. Finer seeks to summarize Friedrich’s theory. Both Friedrich and Finer agree that the current role of officials is more of moral than political responsibility. Finer suggests that Friedrich draws the picture of an administrator as a person who serves the political arm of government but is free to express oneself on the injustices of the same government. Friedrich views people not as a community but as an electorate unit. The people present their ideas and preferences through democratically elected leaders whom the people expect to fulfill their mandate through the laid down legislative functions. According to Friedrich, in any political debate, administrators do not assume high-profile positions since they naturally view themselves to be below the technocrats. Finer also insists by saying that the administrators will always be subject to technical experts by obeying policies and directives. Thus, Friedrich’s argument is that scientific knowledge can be used to solve complex administrative functions.
The Abu Ghraib prisons torture presented a dilemma in responsible administration. A rise was witnessed in the debate on the accountability and ethics in the military department of the United States of America. Acts of torture and humiliation undermined the military’s reputation. According to Friedrich’s theory on responsible governance, threats and sanctions should not be placed on those who commit unethical behavior. When human nature is tolerated, then the best moral standards will just crop in (Stillman 438). However, Finer is of the contrary thought. According to Finer, correction and punishment of administrators is necessary to ensure responsibility. Despite this contrast, both Finer and Friedrich assume a static ontology played a role in solving the Abu Ghraib prisons scandal. Finer and Friedrich both agree that human beings have nature, and that this nature is dynamic in that human beings are trustworthy according to Friedrich and untrustworthy according to Finer.
A handful of military officials appeared before the martial court to answer charges on torture. This was a case of their irresponsible and unethical behavior. As such, some were suspended from the force while others had their pay cut by an amount. Some of the officers were handed years in prison in order to change their moral responsibility. This action is in support of Finer’s view; that correction and punishment is necessary to achieve responsibility by administrators.
In respect to Friedrich’s view, the military officials in the command chain were never tried. In fact some of them were given medals by the Bush administration (Stillman 441). It is of the view that if the senior officials are not reprimanded, then they will naturally consider their inhumane acts in respect to the principle of humanity as forwarded by Friedrich.
The picture from Iraq were quite pathetic and could not be defended. As much as the prisoners were on a corrective measure, it is a moral responsibility of the military officers to treat them with utmost respect for humanity. The soldiers responsible were partly brought to book; will this change the moral of the military towards public interest?
According to Friedrich’s theory on responsible governance, actions of public interest are better coordinated than accounted for (Stillman 441). Since the formation and execution of public policy is a continuous process, then proper coordination to engage both the practitioners and the political class is prudent. According to (Stillman 442), the political process can produce clear statements of preference that can serve as an accountability standard for implementation of technical services.
Public interest is the general well-being of the citizens in a particular country, in this case the United States of America. Public interest is a subject of discussion in many democracies and government systems. It is the role of the government to ensure that the public interest is met. The government could only achieve this by ensuring that policies and solutions to public problems are developed in line with the norms and practices of justice and fairness.
To secure the public interest, governments need to create active forums where citizens can articulate their shared values to develop a sense of public interest. Through this direct engagement with citizens, administrators will be able to adopt a broader range of societal interests.
According to (Stillman 441), to secure public interests, then employee assessment could play a critical role. Administrators could initiate self-assessment mechanisms. The government could also come up with strategies to ensuring that the relevant administrators actually fulfill their mandate in public service.
A secure public interest could also be achieved through cutting on bureaucracy in government agencies. Competitive examinations should be used as a standard of merit for promotion of administrators. This would ensure that only the best and effective staff are recruited to serve the public. According to (Stillman 188), a nonpartisan civil service board will enhance competence in the public service sector. This shall result in satisfying major public interests.
Public interest means serving many people with different tastes and preferences that change over time. These interests are also a factor of behavioral motivation. This calls for better wages to the administrators and all those in charge of government functioning. The government administrators should also ensure that the workers have good working conditions (Stillman 190).
To enhance competency of the administrators, training programs should be conducted regularly amongst the administrators. Training shall equip the administrators with skills necessary to satisfy the divergent public interests. According to (Stillman 191), public interest is like love and so should it be treated. The administrators require the values of patience and tolerance in the course of public service delivery.
Public interest could also be secured through a bipartisan approach in management of institutions (Stillman 55). For example, the top management staff could organize days or events where they meet with the subordinate staff to discuss welfare matters such as working conditions and wage levels.
According to (Stillman 56), public interest could be achieved through public awareness. Citizens should be made aware of their rights and responsibilities; either through the media or the public interest pressure groups.

Reference
Stillman J. Richard. Public Administration: concepts and cases. Boston: Cengage Learning, (2009). Print