...AND EXPECTATIONS: PYGMALION EFFECTS AND OTHER SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECIES IN ORGANIZATIONS Dov Eden Tel Aviv University The Pygmalion effect is a type of self-fulfilling prophecy (SFP) in which raising manager expectations regarding subordinate performance boosts subordinate performance. Managers who are led to expect more of their subordinates lead them to greater achievement. Programmatic research findings from field experiments are reviewed, and our present knowledge about the Pygmalion effect in the management of industrial, sales, and military organizations is summarized. A model is presented in which leadership is hypothesized to be the key mediator through which manager expectations influence motivation, effort, and performance. The subordinate self-efficacy, performance expectations, behaviors that comprise the Pygmalion Leadership Style are described. Besides creating the one-onone Pygmalion effect, additional ways for managers to assert their leadership by creating productive organizationwide SFP are suggested. An agenda for research on SFP applications is proposed. Expectations play an important role in determining leadership effectiveness. Scholars and practitioners have assumed for a long time that leaders who expect more get more (e.g., Likert, 1961, 1967; McGregor, 1960). Despite this general awareness, until recently there was little empirical research illuminating how and why leader expectation effects operate, and how...
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...becoming true. Merton concluded that (2) a belief eventually leads to a result as it influences the individual to change their behaviours to match your initial expectations. Example: My coach expects me to do well and he spends more time with me preparing for my competition. I performed well and got a gold medal. 2. Introduction More often that not, the outcomes of events that occur in a person’s life is the product of the concept of self-fulfilling prophecy. In this article, we will address these questions as follow. First, we present the definition of the self-fulfilling prophecies. Second, we will look at the process of the self-fulfilling prophecy and how it is applied in our everyday life. We subsequently identify the effects of the self-fulfilling prophecy. Fourth, we will discuss the relation of self-fulfilling prophecy to stereotypes. Finally, we will conclude by weighing up the pros and cons of the self-fulfilling prophecy and how it can be fully utilised in an organisation. 3. Applications of Self-Fulfilling Prophecies Three steps are involved in the self-fulfilling prophecy process (McShane, Olekalns & Travaglione, 2012). Process begins when Stage (1) * Defining attitudes, and beliefs of its members * Employer interacts with employee who present highly visible and distinctive characteristics (includes gender, social class, disability, occupation or race) * First impressions or expectations set to the employee are based on...
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...Pygmalion in management The Pygmalion effect is based on the fact that people often live up to the high expectations of other individuals whether their managers, teachers or relatives. Others expectations often lead people to transcend their own abilities and talents and cause self-fulfilling prophecies. J Sterling Livingston, in this article, explores the various facets of this effect in management by looking at the results of different experiments related to it. In one of the examples of the Metropolitian Life Insurance Co., an experiment was carried out in which employees were divided to groups on the basis of previous performance and assigned managers of commensurate ability. As expected, the people of the superior performance group lived up to their expectations and performed admirably; on the other hand, the productivity of the lower performance group declined. However, the anomaly was the average performance group which performed beyond expectations the reason being the manager in charge of the group having a more positive image of her than the perception held by her superiors and the subsequent rub off this image and self-expectation of greater performance onto the entire group. The Pygmalion effect can also be observed in medical science in the form of placebo effect when a non-existent drug administered to patients by physicians who reinforce the efficacy of the same in their recovery often leads to miraculous results. Communication is however a critical factor...
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...Pygmalion originates from the Greek mythology of a king of Cyprus. The king falls in love with an ivory sculpture of his own creation. Captivated by the beauty of his sculpture, he pleads to the Greek gods to give him a wife as much like the sculpture as possible. The gods bring the sculpted woman to life. In the theatrical version of Pygmalion, scriptwriter George Bernard attempts to prove the concept that “the way one person treats another can, for better or worse, be transforming” (Livingston, 5). In the article “Pygmalion in Management” author J. Sterling Livingston uses Barnard’s fairy tale and the Pygmalion effect, as a metaphor for his power of expectation arguments Livingston engages in various aspects of the Pygmalion effect in management by researching several different experiments related directly to the effect. The first experiment Livingston discusses is an experiment that took place by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. The manager of this company assigned his best six insurance agents to his best assistant manager, assigned six average agents to an average manager, and six below-average agents to a below-average assistant manager. He requested that the best agents and manager produce two-thirds of the premium volume reached by the agency during the previous year. As the manager predicted, the members of the superior group fulfilled their expectations and as expected, the below-average group’s productivity declined. The average group however produced...
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...common phrase among educators is “The Pygmalion Effect”. The Pygmalion Effect speaks to teachers expectations of their students and how the teacher’s expectations affect their students’ educational outcome. A 2003 article written by Phillip Rainer found a direct correlation between student’s expectation and the Pygmalion Effect. The study underscored the fallacies of student expectation and the Pygmalion Effect. “The logic of the Pygmalion Effect is simple: if everyone thinks a child has talent then the child will have talent” (Riner 2003). Simply put, when teachers believe in students and allow that student to believe in themselves the student will begin to function in a different capacity in order to reach the expectation that has been set for him/her. Although, the research revealed that Pygmalion did affect student outcome, but the link was not casual. The entire theory...
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...Positive human relations functions are the basis for leadership success. Success for positive interactions in human relations is based on strong communication skills (GCU, 2014). Employee human relations and organizational human relations are developed at work. Therefore, human relations can be defined as the study of human behavior at work and an effort to take action in operating situations in order to produce better results. However, the art and science of human relations was not formally dealt with until the second half of the 19th century. Workers’ needs were beginning to be addressed at that time. Development of the human relations theory happened in six stages. The stages are classical thinking, systematic development, teaching and practice, refinement, decline, and evolving (Razik & Swanson, 2010). Stage 1 or the Stage of Classical Thinking happened Pre-1930’s. This stage states that human behavior is determined by economic needs and goals. Incentives contribute to the necessities of life and replenishment in the workforce. It is also thought that human problems are what stand in the way of productivity (Razik & Swanson, 2010). In today’s schools, teachers are incentivized by higher wages and benefits. Additionally, teachers are sometimes paid stipends for work with students after hours. Stage 2 or Systematic Development took place between the years of 1930-1950. The majority of modern human relations theory and practice developed during this...
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...Insights for Student Success in Higher Education Charles Kurose September 2013 MOTIVATION, BEHAVIOR, AND PERFORMANCE IN THE WORKPLACE I. INTRODUCTION Motivation is a subject that has long interested researchers and practitioners seeking to understand human behavior and performance. Over the course of the 20th century and into the new millennium, scholars have developed sweeping theories and have amassed large bodies of applied research investigating motivation across a variety of settings. Motivation has been studied in schools, the workplace, government, and athletic competitions, to name but a few contexts. It has been studied at the level of the individual, the group, and the organization. Some motivation researchers have employed cognitive models, which emphasize the role of thought processes in determining motivation and behavior, while other researchers have adopted non-cognitive paradigms, which focus on factors such as personality traits, affective states, and environmental determinants. This paper focuses specifically on research about motivation and behavior in the workplace. It discusses motivation theory, which has broad applicability across contexts, as well as the empirical research conducted in workplace contexts. In reviewing this literature, particular emphasis is placed on research about motivation and behavior as they relate to individual performance. A central aim of motivation research is to explicate the complex relationships that exist among motivation...
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...MOTIVATION, BEHAVIOR, AND PERFORMANCE IN THE WORKPLACE I. INTRODUCTION Motivation is a subject that has long interested researchers and practitioners seeking to understand human behavior and performance. Over the course of the 20th century and into the new millennium, scholars have developed sweeping theories and have amassed large bodies of applied research investigating motivation across a variety of settings. Motivation has been studied in schools, the workplace, government, and athletic competitions, to name but a few contexts. It has been studied at the level of the individual, the group, and the organization. Some motivation researchers have employed cognitive models, which emphasize the role of thought processes in determining motivation and behavior, while other researchers have adopted non-cognitive paradigms, which focus on factors such as personality traits, affective states, and environmental determinants. This paper focuses specifically on research about motivation and behavior in the workplace. It discusses motivation theory, which has broad applicability across contexts, as well as the empirical research conducted in workplace contexts. In reviewing this literature, particular emphasis is placed on research about motivation and behavior as they relate to individual performance. A central aim of motivation research is to explicate the complex relationships that exist among motivation, behavior, and performance—such knowledge is critical for managers tasked with...
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...How do my styles of Communication have an effect on my communication with others? This class has helped me break into who I believe I am and how I may reflect those beliefs onto others. I have found that my communications skills are very strong in some areas and could use some work in other areas. It is my opinion that many factors in life can help or hinder the way you communicate your needs, wants, emotions and thoughts. Many feel that by expressing their opinions or emotions others will portray them as being weak or overbearing and in some cases if a different approach of communication was taken, these expressions will have been perceived differently. Through my studies I have found that I am a very active listener with tendencies to be passive and can work at being more efficient in communicating my emotions in a productive manner. “Your personal success and happiness depend largely on your effectiveness as an interpersonal communicator.” (Devito, 2016) My communications skills are very strong when it comes to listening to others, being a lending ear and encouraging others to have open lines of communication. It is my opinion that many factors in life can help or hinder the way you communicate your needs, wants, emotions and thoughts. Many feel that by expressing their opinions or emotions others will portray them as being weak or overbearing and in some cases if a different approach of communication was taken, these expressions will have been perceived differently...
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...social perception The process of combining, integrating, and interpreting information about others to gain an accurate understanding of them. Meeting New People: An Opportunity for Social Perception Meeting new people presents many opportunities to combine, integrate, and interpret a great deal of information about them—the process of social perception. Attribution The process through which individuals attempt to determine the causes behind others’ behavior. Personal identity The characteristics that define a particular individual. social identity Who a person is, as defined in terms of his or her membership in various social groups. social identity theory A conceptualization recognizing that the way we perceive others and ourselves is based on both our unique characteristics (see personal identity) and our membership in various groups Social Identity Theory: An Overview According to social identity theory, people identify themselves in terms of their individual characteristics and their own group memberships. They then compare themselves to other individuals and groups to help define who they are, both to themselves and others. correspondent inferences Judgments about people’s dispositions, their traits and characteristics, that correspond to what we have observed of their actions. internal causes of behavior Explanations based on actions for which the individual is responsible. external causes of behavior Explanations based on situations...
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...How can Perceptions and Attributions Of Certain Roles in the Organization Be Controlled Within Organizational Change? Christine Freese 4020 Derby Drive, Cumming, GA 30040 cfreese@ariba.com 770-402-6287 MGMT591- Leadership and Organizational Behavior Joseph Walkowicz September 29, 2013 * Introduction a) The organization discussed in this research paper is Ariba, Inc (an SAP Company). Ariba is a software and information technology services company located in Sunnyvale, California. It was acquired by German software maker SAP AG in 2012. Ariba provides "Spend Management solutions" which help companies "analyze, understand, and manage their corporate spending to achieve cost savings and business process efficiency." Currently, 94 of the Fortune 100 and more than 200,000 other companies use Ariba's SaaS (Software as a Service) solutions to manage their spend and commerce activities. (Ariba, 2013) b) The role of the researcher is Senior Director of Global Commercial Operations for the Sales Organization. She manages the following teams; Requests for Proposals, Deal Pricing, Deal Bookings, Non Corporate Compensation, Commissions and overall Sales Operations. For the purposes of this paper her role will be related to the Account Executives (Sales people). Specifically in the area of recruiting and retention. c) Prior to the acquisition, Ariba was a 3,000 employee company with approximately 100 Account Executives worldwide. The main objective...
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...Southwest Airlines Organizational Behavior Herbert David Kelleher led Southwest Airlines to over 30 consecutive years of profitability, first as the company's cofounder and legal counsel from 1966 to 1982, then as its president, CEO, and chairman from 1982 to 2001. Southwest Airlines was incorporated in Texas and is headquartered at Love Field just outside of Dallas. Customer Service started on June 18, 1971, with three Boeing 737 aircraft serving three Texas cities; Houston, Dallas, and San Antonio. Today, Southwest operates 550 Boeing 737 aircraft among 72 cities. Southwest topped the monthly domestic originating passenger rankings for the first time in May 2003. Yearend results for 2010 marked Southwest's 38th consecutive year of profitability. Southwest became a major airline in 1989 when it exceeded the billion-dollar revenue mark. The company has roughly 35,000 employees located in 72 cities throughout the country. In 2010, Southwest Airlines had total operating revenue of 12.1 billion and net income of 459 million. The culture at Southwest Airlines prides itself on their unique and positive organizational culture, an encouraging working environment, and exceptional customer satisfaction. Southwest proudly declares their distinguishing factors in the airline market, “[w]e are a company of People, not planes. That is what distinguishes us from other airlines” (Buller & Schuler, 2006, p.118). Not only do competing airlines attempt to mimic this strategy but also...
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...A clear vision statement delineates what the organization expects to accomplish in the future. Its purpose is to motivate employees and management to what the organization could be in the next three to five years (Comstock, 2015). In order for management to gain everyone's buy-in, they must include its team members and provide them an opportunity to engage and share the project’s vision. These goals must be realistic and obtainable (Comstock, 2015). Developing a team's vision statement is similar to developing an organizational vision statement. It is a transformation to what it currently is to what it could be in the near future. Determining the vision statement should be able to answer why the team exists, the impact it will have on stakeholders, and what it will achieve (Levitt, 2013). Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile (JASSM) program's vision statement is "To challenge ourselves and our customers to produce the best missile system at the lowest cost within two years". The vision statement shows the aspiration and inspiration (Free, 2014). The team should also deliver deliverables that are S.M.A.R.T., Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, and Time-activated (Levitt, 2013). The project team deliverables are to award contracts to two companies to develop a missile within two years, maintain within a budget of $800,000 per unit, and award the company with a multi-billion production contract. High-performing teams consistently complete projects on time...
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...Pygmalion in Management* In George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion, Eliza Doolittle explains: "You see, really and truly, apart from the things anyone can pick up (the dressing and the proper way of speaking and so on), the difference between a lady and a flower girl is not how she behaves, but how she's treated. I shall always be a flower girl to Professor Higgins, because he always treats me as a flower girl, and always will; but I know I can be a lady to you, because you always treat me as a lady, and always will." Some managers always treat their subordinates in a way that leads to superior performance. But most managers, like professor Higgins, unintentionally treat their subordinates in a way that leads to lower performance than they are capable of achieving. The way managers treat their subordinates is subtly influenced by what they expect of them. If a manager's expectations are high, productivity is likely to be excellent. If his expectations are low, productivity is likely to be poor. It is as though there were a law that caused a subordinate's performance to rise or fall to meet his manager's expectations. The powerful influence of one person's expectations on another's behaviour has long been recognised by physicians and behavioural scientists and, more recently, by teachers. But heretofore the importance of managerial expectations for individual and group performance has not been widely understood. I have documented this phenomenon in a number of...
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...Fraud is bred in an environment that consists of low morals, lack of controls and accountability, and high pressure; this will result in a high fraud environment where fraud is most likely to occur. “A fish rots from the head down”, this is a common phrase used to define leaders of an organization or state who is the root cause of a mishap, or in Caterpillar’s case, fraud. When fraud occurs, the top management is also responsible for it indirectly; one of the most widely used measures to prevent fraud is by cultivating a culture that encompasses morality, acceptance and assistance. The three factors in creating a low-fraud environment are; hiring honest people and providing fraud awareness training; creating a positive work environment; and providing an employee assistance program (EAP). Hiring honest people and providing fraud awareness training Although it is impossible for employers to completely barricade against recruiting fraudulent employees, there are still certain precautions an employer can adopt to detect symptom of potential fraud. For example, in Caterpillar’s case, their first and foremost action to take is to verify potential interviewees’ resumes and certifications. Grad School Hub Deducing from the statistics above, a large number of people are “stretching the truth” about their work experience and accomplishments. Some other companies have conceived various strategies to counter this, for example; using systems to detect credit debt of their potential...
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