...scientific theories about observable phenomena in a wide variety of particular instances. Example: Newtonian mechanics. • It is one task of philosophers of science to explain why it is that tour accepted scientific theories enjoy such success. • Why are scientific theories instrumentally successful? o Acceptance of a scientific theory is its instrumental success—if a candidate for a new theory gives obviously incorrect predictions about what we observe, then it will soon cease to be a viable candidate. o What is it about our accepted theories that make them predictively reliable? 1.2 Realism and Anti-Realism • One point of difference between realism and anti-realism concerns the interpretations of theoretical terms in claims of science. • Interpretation of theoretical: the way in which claims about unobservable entities (such as magnetics fields or electrons) are to be understood. • If a successful scientific theory utilizes the theoretical term neutrino then the realist infers that such objects exist, as described by the theory, in the world. • Anti-realists, typically deny that theoretical terms can be understood as actually referring to real objects in the world, though many insist that scientific theories must be understood as purporting to describe real objects in the world. • Another point of contention btw realist and ant-realists concerns the confirmation of scientific theories. • Anti-realist argues there are an infinite number of possible theories, with...
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...The use of historical data as evidence to test international relations theory is commonly use by international relations theorists to pinpoint factual historical data that can either support their hypotheses or contradict theoretical hypotheses made by theorists who oppose them. Historical cases and individual events can be, and are often selected differently by those who have different approaches. In the case of realists, they have an objective view and often use the factual, scientific and quantifiable evidence to understand theories. For the case of 9/11, a realist would only look at this event as an occurrence that was simply a terror attack with explosions and the death of civilians. Realists would view cases such as this as happenings that simply support a theoretical approach along with several other similar cases in history, due to the fact that it is experienced evidence that is universally known and understood. A constructivist however would select and look at cases based upon historical memory and they way they were experienced by multiple different populates. For the case of 9/11, a constructivist would view this historical case as a terror attack that caused trauma to the United States of America and is an event that is more than the deaths of thousands. They would dissect historical events and convey the emotions that were felt, as well as the explosions that ensued, because these theorist believe that there can’t be an objective and single-fact overview of historical...
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...10/23/15 A Defense of Roush: ‘Optimism about the Pessimistic Induction In this paper, I will attempt to reconsider Roush’s paper on the power of empirical evidence on a theory we know to be true or approximately true and to hold that it stands to any attacks that a pessimist attempting to claim a meta-inducted position on current theories. In her paper, she describes how a pessimist cannot hold their argument first on the basis of evidence collection being inherently different in both procedures of collecting evidence and content of evidence to compare theories from the past that have been ruled false with seemingly good supporting evidence compared to theories we think are true now with same level of seemingly good supporting evidence. Roush argues on this point that by comparing different evidence collection and content, the pessimist is left attempting to argue that the evidence of the current theory is not “better” than the the theory of the past. The second type of pessimist driven line of questioning is the idea of reliability of evidence as good support for its corresponding theory. Roush later argues that the scientific theories presented are becoming more reliable and, in that sense, are a good measure of a theory that we assume is the truth or approximately true. The argument Roush lays out first begins by discussing reliability in terms of fallibility. She describes fallibility with the illustration of the preface paradox. In many cases of published literature,...
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...Assess the Extent to which sociology could be seen as a science (33 marks) Science is characterised by five components. These are as follows. Empirical means we can count and measure information and testable is defined as experiments being able to be repeated and retested, therefore seen as more reliable. The theoretical means science seeks out causal relationships and doesn’t rely on descriptions but also to explain. Cumulative means it builds on previous knowledge and moves our understanding of the world forwards. Lastly, the objective details that personal feelings, prejudices etc have no place in science. It basically has to be unbiased. It is debated as to whether sociology fits into this definition, with strong divides in the for and against. One argument presented as to why sociology is a science comes from Positivists. Positivists use quantitative data and methods such as questionnaires in order to distinguish any trends, patterns or correlations in an investigation. By adopting the methods of natural sciences they establish sociology as a real science. Comte argued that it should be based on the methodology of the natural sciences. This is the approach that positivists take however, there comes a difficulty with applying these measures to the subject. In science the aim is to achieve the same and correct answer each time the experiment is done, and this shows reliability and validity in whatever claims that are trying to be made. If an anomaly appears steps are taken...
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...Philosophical Theories and Practices Katrina D. Braggs Argosy University Abstract In this exercise, the writer was asked to explore the philosophical theories and practices of four of her colleagues. She will select and define Realism and Perennialism and explain how each teacher demonstrates their beliefs in these theories and how they apply them in their teaching. Her purpose will be to show how these modern day educators skillfully use the historical teachings and methods to instill a progressive education in their students. She will discuss two colleagues per theory and offer a comparison and differentiation in their methods. Keywords: realism, Perennialism Philosophical Theories and Practices The writer selected colleagues one and two based upon the theory of Realism in education. According to Pulliam and Van Patten, realists believe division between objects and form does not exist and humans know reality through examination of objects and through reason. Colleague I is a fourth grade teacher whose classroom consists of a mixture of average and below average students from mostly low-income families. Due to these demographics, she finds it imperative to use experiences familiar to the students to effectively convey the subject matter at hand. She presents all objectives in a simple and concrete manner prior to instruction for learner attainment before moving on to that which is more complex and abstract. The materials are highly precise and there is no guess...
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...reject the idea that mathematics is indispensable to science and that, instead of accepting the existence of objects that are indispensable to scientific theories, one ought to reject the truth of the theory itself until all the indispensable objects are confirmed to exist by observation. The Quine-Putnam indispensability thesis challenges the idea that mathematical objects do not exist and are merely fictional entities. It is simple in form and is presented in the following way by Mark Colyvan[1]: Premise 1: If one must unavoidably cite certain objects in a scientific explanation then one must accept the existence of those objects. Premise 2: One must unavoidably cite mathematical objects in scientific explanations Conclusion: One must accept the existence of mathematical objects. The second premise of the Quine-Putnam indispensability thesis seems fairly intuitive at first glance, if one thinks of the majority of scientific explanations or problems that have been solved one will find some form of mathematics. Hartry Field approaches the indispensability thesis by questioning this common view that one has to cite mathematical objects in scientific explanations[2]. He does this by making claims about physical objects and phenomena without referencing any mathematical objects such as numbers. Such explanations and theories are referred to as nominalistic. Field provides an account of how Newtonian gravitation can be explained without mathematics, in order to advance this...
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...University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent, CT2 7PE, U.K. Tel: þ44 1227 824008; E-mail: j.mingers@kent.ac.uk Received: 24 July 2007 Accepted: 15 October 2007 Abstract This paper addresses the issue of truth and knowledge in management generally and knowledge management in particular. Based on ideas from critical realism and critical theory, it argues against the monovalent conceptualization of knowledge implicitly or explicitly held by many authors and aims instead to develop a characterization that recognizes the rich and varied ways in which human beings may be said ‘to know’. It points out and conceptualizes a fundamental dimension of knowledge that is generally ignored or cursorily treated within the literature, that is, ‘truth’. It identifies four forms of knowledge – propositional, experiential, performative and epistemological – and explores their characteristics, especially in terms of truth and validity. It points out some implications for knowledge management. Knowledge Management Research & Practice (2008) 6, 62–76. doi:10.1057/palgrave.kmrp.8500161 Keywords: knowledge management; knowledge; information; critical realism; critical theory; truth Introduction Although knowledge management (KM) has established itself as a bona fide subject both in practice (Grover & Davenport, 2001) and in the academic world (Schultze & Leidner, 2002), there has been, and remains, considerable debate about the fundamental concepts of ‘knowledge’, ‘information’ and even of ‘data’...
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...personality, most definitions refer to a person’s mental system. This accumulation of psychological collections will include emotions, motives, and thoughts. ”Personality includes all those relatively permanent traits or characteristics that render some consistency to a person’s behavior” (Fiest & Fiest, 2009). Traits among individuals may be unique, mutual with few, or common among an entire species; however, the pattern will always be different for each and every person. People may share similar thoughts, views, etc; but they are still very much unique. The Scientific Approach to Studying Personality When examining theoretical approaches to the study of personality, “people confuse theory with philosophy, speculation, hypothesis, or taxonomy (Fiest & Fiest, 2009. Scientists use theories and detective reasoning to formulate hypothesis that...
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...The field of international relations has largely developed over the years to have multiple different theories for how issues like diplomacy play out in the real world. The ways in which people believe problems in the international community should be solved have diversified into various schools of thought. These schools span the political spectrum from a Marxist view of the world to an Anarchist perspective. Though two of the arguably most prominent schools of thought would be the Realist and the Liberalist. The realist point of view takes on a frank examination of the world, believing that countries act in their own self interest and that power is often the most sought after end. On the contrary. the Liberalist school of thought holds a more...
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...Essay Topics for CPHL 550 – Knowledge, Truth and Belief “Plan your work, work your plan”. – Vince Lombardi General Instructions Make sure to consult the Basic Style Guidelines Document and the Tips for Writing an Effective CPHL550 Essay Document in order to confirm the details for each assignment (both the minor and the major essay) especially with respect to the minimal length requirement. The Course Statement on Plagiarism and Academic Misconduct is also required reading “before” starting any assignment in this course. Since there is no final exam in this course, your essay assignments need to be treated with the same (if not more) attention and effort that you would give to an in-class midterm or final exam. It takes research,planning, contemplation and above all an adequate amount of time in order to make sure that you have the opportunity to fully engage in these activities before the writing process itself begins. Please bear in mind that your essay marks combined represent almost half of your total course mark, my advice (in advance) is for all students to proportion their effort accordingly in this regard. Make sure that you begin by consulting (or reviewing if we already covered the material previously) the relevant module (both the lecture and readings) before writing on a particular topic. You may consult other readings on the issue (preferably academic journal articles, or scholarly works) but keep your noncourse sources to a minimum (see the basic...
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...“As Benedict Anderson has argued, nations are ‘imagined communities’ … constituted in part by … discourses of national identity … the stories that all nations tell themselves: stories about the nation’s origins, its struggles, its triumphs, its character, its values, its past, and even its future.” (Jackie Hogan). With specific and direct reference to one ‘movement’/national cinema studied this term, discuss “discourses of national identity,” paying attention to how they “imagine” the nation for both domestic and foreign audiences. Realism is an important concept in the cinematic movement of the British New Wave and its spark of Social-Realist films that began to surface from the 1950’s. There are various incentives for this quest for depicting the world as it really is in film. In Theories of Cinema (1999) film theorist Francesco Casetti states that people want to see “the splendor of the world, the truth of things, in a word, reality” (Casetti, 1999, p.21), and this understanding may be regarded as the founding maxim of the British New Wave movement which attempted to present the previously unseen ‘real’ Britain. The British New Wave movement emerged from the short-lived but exceptionally influential British documentary movement of the 1950’s known as Free Cinema. This movement began with a series of documentaries directed by the likes of Lindsay Anderson, Karel Reisz and Tony Richardson being screened at the National Film Theatre in London in February 1956, and continued...
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...0 Term Paper Discourses of Standpoint Feminism in International Relations Shipra Shukla M.Phil Student Subject: Advanced International Relations Theories Department of Political Science University of Delhi 1 1. 1 Introduction Feminism can be simply defined as the study of and movement for women not as subjects but as subjects of knowledge. During the 1980s, feminism and the role of gender have gained entry in the study of international relations. Prior to this feminism was greatly ignored. However, over the last decade, feminism has emerged as a key critical perspective within the study of international relations. The initial thrust of this critique was to challenge the fundamental biases of the discipline and to highlight the ways in which women were excluded from analyses of the state, international political economy, and international security. According to O'Callaghan (2002) feminism in international relations can be framed in two main domains. The first wave of feminist scholarship in the 1980s is now called feminist empiricism; in which international relations scholars have sought to reclaim women’s hidden voices and to expose the multiplicity of roles that women play in sustaining global economic forces and state interactions. For example, women’s participation and involvement facilitate tourism, colonialism, and economically powerful states’ domination of weak states. The maintenance of the international political economy depends upon stable political and...
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...Scientific Inquiry Javier Bryon AIU Online Abstract By using the controlled experimental method we can prove or disprove hypothesis in question. During the experiment we can come to a conclusion on whether further experimentation is needed or other hypothesis need to be implemented to solve a question. Introduction Blue porch ceilings are quite prevalent along the east coast, there are many theories as to why, from keeping evil spirits out of the home to fooling spiders and wasps into thinking that the ceilings are actually the sky. Many old houses around the Victorian and Colonial era bear this color in their porches due to the popularity at the time, but even now the popularity of the color is prevalent. Besides keeping evil spirits from entering the homes and fooling bugs, the blue ceiling reminds the owners of the blue skies even on cloudy days. Hypothesis The blue paint used in the painting of porches of the Victorian and Colonial homes contains an ingredient that repels insects, a natural insecticide used in the popular paint color. Prediction If there is an ingredient that naturally repels insects in the blue paint then the results should be obvious. Painting two porches ceilings one with blue paint and another one with white paint should demonstrate that the one with blue paint is bug free during the time of the experiment. Controlled Experimental Method First three enclosures were built; enclosure number one ceiling is painted sky blue. Enclosure...
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...Testing A Theory PSY/201 May 12, 2013 A couple of years ago, I decided to test a theory on myself by trying to lose fight while gaining more muscle mass. I have heard so many different theories on how to lose fat while gaining muscle mass, but I could not find a good routine that gave me the best results. Before I began my research, I had to think critical about what was causing me to gain fat, and why my workout routine was not as effective on myself as it was for others. I began to search for credible sources on the Internet, so that I can have a better understanding of the relationship between nutrition and the human body. Once my understanding on nutrition was clear, I then began to do research on fat burning and strength conditioning. After my research was complete, I began to test these theories on myself. I created a chart that kept track of each exercise, the amount of repetitions completed, weight loss or gain, and body fat percentage. I used this chart to compare my before and after results within 90 days, and the end results were stunning. I could lower my body fat percentage, and gain more muscle mass, which was exactly what I wanted. The type of informal research that was used to test this theory was experimental research. According to the textbook, Psychology and Your Life, it tells us about experimental research, which states, “Investigator produces a change in one variable to observe the effects of that change on other variables” (Ch. 1, pg. 33)...
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...scientific method was trying to plant roses and trying to keep them alive. I would plant the roses and water them and even planted them in the sun. I would not try to figure out why they would keep dying. If I would have went through and tried fertilizer and tried to figure out why they kept dying then I would have at least came to a conclusion. If I would have found out how to take care of roses and then started to water them the way they are supposed to be watered and gave the roses the fuel they need to live they would not have died. I would have first seen how to take care of roses. Then I would have measured out the water and how much sun they needed and applied that then tested my theory I could have seen if they would have lived. If the roses had died after that then I would have tested other theories to see what works like trying to put fertilizer around the base of the rose bush to see if the ground was not the reason the roses were dying. If the ground does not have enough nutrients then the roses would not have been able to get the food it needed from the...
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