How Rural-Urban Migration Contributes to the Development of a Megacity: A case from Bangladesh Abstract
Like other developing countries, rural-urban migration is the prime reason of developing megacity in Bangladesh. It is the most important factor for rapid urbanization as well. Dhaka, the only megacity in Bangladesh, became a megacity having more than 10 million of population in 2001. Dhaka is the center of attraction of this region since 7th century and the development phase of this megacity can be categorized into five- Pre-mughal period, Mughal period, British period, Pakistan period and independent Bangladesh period. Although rural-urban migration plays the crucial most role to turn Dhaka from a city to megacity, it was not very significant during the first three period. With the partition of subcontinent Dhaka became the capital of independent Bangladesh and huge numbers of migrants start to step into this city. Dhaka, the 9th largest of 21 megacities of the world, drags people towards it with several ‗forces of attraction‘. This study, on the rural-urban migrants residing over the slums of Dhaka city, finds that availability of jobs, easy access to informal economy, ‗Dhaka means Taka‘ conception and ‗illuminating Dhaka‘ are the prime forces of attraction of Dhaka megacity.
Keywords:
Megacity, Dhaka, Rural-Urban Migration, Migration toward Megacity, Forces of Attraction.
Introduction
Development of cities and urban centers as well is intrinsically related with human migration, especially with rural-urban migration. The huge labor requirement of urban centers is fulfilled by the labors from the rural areas (Harris 1970). In terms of Bangladesh, the development of urban centers is closely related with rural-urban migration. It is the most important factor for rapid urbanization in Bangladesh (Ishtiaque 2011). Migration can be broadly defined as the change of residence from one civil division to another for a period of time or on a permanent basis. Migration occurs for various reasons, but due to PEST factors (political, economic, social and technological) people are more likely to move (Ullah 2004). Rural-Urban migration is the most crucial component of internal migration of any country. It is a powerful symbol for regional inequality, in terms of economy, opportunities and living standards (Islam 2006). Rural-out migration or urban-in migration happens to diminish the gap between needs and gains (Islam 1996b). This migration always plays an important role in developing cities, megacities. In the developing country like Bangladesh population mobility is a necessary condition for sustainable development and poverty alleviation (Islam 1996a). Poverty and physical mobility are closely interrelated (Anderson 2002). Anh (2003) opined that migration is a driver of growth and an important route out of poverty with significant positive impact on people‘s livelihoods and wellbeing. Migration towards urban centers becomes an important livelihood diversification strategy for the poor groups of any country (Berner 2000). This picture is clearly depicted in Dhaka. Dhaka megacity is the most popular destination for the poor groups of the country and Dhaka is now considered as city of urban poor‘ (Islam 2001).
Megacity Dhaka At present World has 21 megacities, defined as having over 10 million in population (World Urbanization Prospect 2009). Dhaka joined this ‗megacity‘ rank in 2001 with a population of 10.7 million (BBS 2003). Dhaka now holds 14.65 million populations in an area of 1530 square kilometers and becomes the world‘s 9th largest megacity (World Urbanization Prospect 2009). Between 1990 and 2005, the city doubled in size from 6 to 12 million (Burkart 2008). By 2025 Dhaka will be home of 20.94 million people larger than Mexico City, Beijing or New York. In 2025 Dhaka will become the 5th largest megacity (World Urbanization Prospect 2009). Dhaka has increased 35 times in last 60 years. This increase is occurring mainly due to high level of rural-out migration. Every year rural people pour into Dhaka city nearly at a rate of 400,000 each year (German 2010). Migration and redefinition of urban boundaries contribute three-fifth and two-thirds respectively to the urban growth of Bangladesh for the last four decades (Afsar 2000). Dhaka is the only megacity in Bangladesh. It is the fastest growing urban center in Bangladesh. The megacity Dhaka includes the entire area of Dhaka City Corporation, Gazipur Sadar upazila of Gazipur district, Narayanganj Sadar and Bandar upazilas of Narayanganj district and Savar and Keraniganj upazilas of Dhaka district, extending an area of more than 1500 square kilometers (Rasheed 2008). Figure 1 denotes the hierarchy of urban and rural centers (The urban and rural centers of Bangladesh are classified based on their population size during the census of 2001. Details can be found in BBS National Report of Population Census 2001) of Bangladesh and a simplified one-way migration flow.
Dhaka: Development of a Megacity
Dhaka City is centrally located in Bangladesh, in the southern part of the district of Dhaka (Afsar 2000). It is situated between latitudes 24˚40´ N to 24˚54´ N and longitudes 90˚20´ E to 90˚30´ E and defined by the Buriganga river in the south; the Balu and the Shitalakhya rivers in the east; Tongi Khal in the north and the Turag river in the west. The majesty of Dhaka City has developed over a long span of time (Hossain 2008). The city was under the suzerainty of different kings and rulers and its growth was hindered and distributed from time to time. Sometimes the growth gained momentum during the reign of some rulers and other times it did not (Asaduzzaman 1997). We can categorize this development into Pre-Mughal Dhaka, Era of Mughals, British Period, Pakistan Period and Bangladesh Period.
Pre-Mughal Dhaka (Before 1608)
Dhaka was under the Buddhist kingdom of Kamrup in the 7th and 8th centuries. From about 9th century A.D it was governed by the Sen Kings of Vikrampur. Dhaka of that time was probably a small town, with 52 bazaars and 53 lanes, lying between the rivers (Birt 1906 and Ruddock 1964). After the Hindu Rulers, Dhaka was successively under the Turks and Pathans for a long time (1299-1608) before the arrival of Mughals. The Afghan fort in Dhaka was located at the present Central Jail. After Pathans, Dhaka went under the Sultans of Sonargaon from whom the sovereignty was acquired by the Mughals (Islam 1984).

The urban and rural centers of Bangladesh are classified based on their population size during the census of 2001. Details can be found in BBS National Report of Population Census 2001

Era of Mughals (1608-1757) The city began to flourish as a commercial and political centre, expanding in the west up to Chandi Ghat during 1602-1604. After the Sultans the Mughals took over the city and started to attribute more importance to it. During the early Mughal rule, the city covered an area of about 2.20 sq. km and was confined within the small continuous zone of the present old city. Dhaka City got its pomp and splendour during the Mughal rule and attained the prestigious position of the premier city of the empire. The city gained its reputation as a capital during the early period of the 17th century (Asaduzzaman 1997). It was made capital of the province of Bengal in 1608 by Subader Islam Khan Chisti for its political and military importance, and being a capital, it required more space for administrative, military purposes and accommodation. Centering the old market, the provincial capital Dhaka began to develop rapidly as a major city of the province (Dani 1962). During the rule of the Mughals Dhaka City grew in a north-western direction. D‘oloy shows that the greatest urban growth took place under Subedar Saista Khan (1662-1667 and 1679-1689) (D‘oloy 1824). At that time, the city extended from the Buriganga river in the south to Tongi Bridge in the north, a distance of about 25 km (in a north-south direction) and from Jafrabad (Sarai Jafrabad) in the west to Postogola in the east, a distance of about 15 km in a east-west direction. Of course, this huge Mughal city incorporated many villages and suburbs within its urban area and at that time the city had a population of over a million (Travernnier 1925). The city then started to lose its glory with the shifting of the provincial capital to Murshidabad in 1717 (due to a personal clash between the Emperor Azim-Us-Shan and Subedar Murshid Kuli Khan) (Karim, 1964). From that time a number of influences from European traders started to increase in Bengal. At that time the size of Dhaka City was about 4.5 sq. km and the population was about 1 million (Taylor 1840). The main city was confined in a small area on the northern bank of the river Buriganga around the Lalbagh and Chawk-Mughaltoli area where the older part of the city is today (Asaduzzaman 1997).
British Period (1757-1947)
East India Company from Britain took control of Bengal after a brutal battle in 1757. Under the control of the East India Company Dhaka City became a declining urban centre and between 1757-1864 it had a tremendous decrease in population and area (Hunter 1976). The population of Dhaka City which was estimated to be nearly 200,000 in 1800 dropped to 51,000 in 1873. Kolkata of present India was the focus of economy and commerce at that time. Kolkata developed as an urban center by the British, and this development process started with the coalescence of three villages- Sutanoti, Gobindopur and Kolikata. Kolkata was also the political nucleus of the total Bengal region while Dhaka lost its attraction due to the rapid emergence of Kolkata. Perhaps for that reason people started to leave Dhaka and the population dropped within a short period of time. The energetic controller of Dhaka, Mr. Walters founded the Dhaka Committee in 1830 and under his chairmanship began the development of Dhaka town. The total urban area during that time rose to a total of 14.5 sq. km and the total population was 51,635 in 1867 (Hossain 2008).
Dhaka City began to rise from a declining and stagnant condition after the transfer of power to the Crown in 1858 by the British East India Company. The first local administration, the Dhaka Municipality was found in 1864 by Mr. Skinner (Taifoor 1952). After 1864, the lowland areas in the north of Islampur, Tantibazar, Kamrangir Char, Goalnagar were gradually filed for urbanisation and at the same time Wari, Gandaria, Old Cantonment (Purana Paltan) Narinda, Hazaribagh, Nawabganj, Sarai Jafarbad, Race Course Green Pastures and Rayar Bazaar were also brought under the town‘s jurisdiction (Geddes 1917). Thus the area of Dhaka City was expanded into 17.0 sq. km. and Dhaka City started to flourish again, its population increasing to a total of some 90 thousand in 1901 and reaching over a hundred thousand in the subsequent ten years (Asaduzzaman 1997).
With the advent of 20th century Dhaka began to experience the pressure of population on its resources. For the first time in British period Dhaka became the provincial capital in 1906. As Dhaka became the administrative capital this whole region became Dhaka‘s hinterland. In migration flow increased very much during that time. Though in 1911 administrative capital was shifted to Kolkata, the level of urbanization started to increase slowly. But Dhaka remained as a mere district till the partition in 1947.
Pakistan Period (1947-1971)
Partition in 1947 brought about a momentum to the growth of Dhaka. Dhaka became the provincial capital of then East Pakistan. Partition of the sub-continent not only restricted the spatial extent of migration of Bangladeshi people, it also caused a great deal of socio-economic disruption by dislocating three to four million people within a very short time (Mahbub 1997). At partition Bangladesh (then East Pakistan) gained 699,709 muhajirs (Muslim migrants) from India (Census of Pakistan, 1951). The influx of people from India on the one hand and the onrush of people to the newly established administrative, commercial and educational centre on the other contributed to an unprecedented growth of the city (Siddiqui 2000). The need for office space for administrative and commercial purposes as well as residential needs resulting from the increase in population led to the growth of the city on several levels. During this period, the Dhaka Improvement Trust (DIT) was created in 1956 (which was later transformed into RAJUK in 1987) for supervision of the overall planning and development of the city. Beside different urban development projects, DIT developed a number of residential areas to meet the housing needs of the emerging elite class (Khan 2001). For the development of the city, wetlands were being encroached and filled up, deforestation started. Thus the city started to expand in north- south direction. The Banani and Gulshan areas were acquired by the government in the early sixties under the 1959-Master Plan of Dhaka City and by 1961, the city population grew to 718,766 and the area at that time was about 125 sq. km (BBS Urban Area Report 1991). From the very beginning of the history of Bengal, the dominant reason behind the growth of Dhaka city was rural out migration and urban in migration. Although there was a pressure of population at that time on the scarce resource of Dhaka, it was not very acute. ―Gola vora dhan, pukur vora mach‖ (Abundant rice in house, plentiful fish in pond) concept was still prevailed in the rural areas of Bangladesh. During the Pakistan period the developments of urban centers were very slow and pressure on the land resources was not so acute, rural-urban migration was not very significant. During this period two census reports of 1951 and 1961 represented 4.46% level of urbanization on average and the urban growth rate was only 2.64% (Census of Pakistan 1951 and 1961).
Bangladesh Period (1971- At Present) After liberation in 1971 Dhaka for the first time became the capital of an independent country. The urbanization process achieved tremendous growth to meet the needs of the newly independent country‘s capital. The city‘s population suddenly increased to 2,068,353 in 1974, it began to expand in all directions including the low-lying areas of the east, such as Jurain, Goran, Badda, Khilgaon, Rampura, and to the west including the areas of Kamrangirchar, Shyamoli, Western Mohgammadpur, Kallyanpur (Chowdhury 1991). This sudden increase of population occurred due to high level of rural out migration. Just after the liberation a famine broke out in 1974, which was known as ‗Famine of 1974‘. Though the Pakistanis were fled away by the Liberation Fighters of Bangladesh, but before it they ruined the economy and commerce of Bangladesh. Massive crop failure brought about a severe food crisis all over the country. This famine played an important role in rural out migration. Many people came to Dhaka in search of food and employment. However, the main cause of the rapid growth of Dhaka is not that particular one. For the first time Dhaka became the capital of an independent country. Urbanization in Dhaka started to grow very fast. Dhaka became the nucleus of the country. It became the administrative, economic, commercial capital. Dhaka also had the highest level education institutions in its territory. Thus people were dragged by Dhaka. As very rapid urban growth (along with a fast increase in population and structural development) started to take place a new structural plan was needed. The population leapt to 3 million within a decade of the independence of the country and the city covered an area of about 510 sq. km. by 1981 (Siddiqui 2000). During this period the swamps and wetlands within the city started to disappear quickly and new areas of residential, administrational, business and commercial importance began to develop. In addition, slum and squatter settlements also sprang up in different areas of the city (Hossain 2008). Dhaka City has faced its highest rate of physical and population growth during 1981-1991, with the population doubling during that decade and the city expanding from 510 sq. km to 1353 sq. km (Mahbub 1997). The city now includes the surrounding areas of Gazipur, Sadar and Bandar thana of Narayangong and the entire Keraniganj, Savar thana (BBS Urban Area Report 1991).
Dhaka got the term ‗megacity‘, after 141 years of becoming a municipal corporation, in 2001 having a population of 10.7 million. And in January 2011, Dhaka City Corporation (DCC) has been divided into two parts- north DCC and south DCC for proper management.

Table 02: Historical Development of Dhaka in terms of Population and Area

124-The census of 1971 could not be held due to Liberation War.
Forces of Attraction of Megacity Dhaka Now why do the migrants come to the urban centers, specifically to megacity Dhaka? To study the ‗forces of attraction‘ of this megacity Korail slum, the largest slum of Bangladesh, was selected as study area. A slum was selected because slum is the popular destination for rural-urban migrants and Ullah (2004) found about 91% of the rural-out migrants‘ final destination is slum or squatter settlement. In Dhaka more than 37% of the total city population lives in slums and the slum population density is 220,246 persons per km 2 (CUS 2005). Random sampling method was adopted to choose total 319 respondents. Only the household head was selected as respondent. Both open ended and close ended questionnaire method were used to collect the migration information of the respondents. Face to face interview as well as FGD was used to conduct the survey. For data analysis several sophisticated statistical techniques have been employed. Dhaka was the regional center since before 1600 A.D and still now it drags people from all over the country. Several factors work as ‗forces of attraction‘ here. Some of them are- availability of jobs, access to informal economy, presence of industries/factories, higher income probability, higher service facilities, central geographical location etc.

Potential Forces of Attraction The rural areas of Bangladesh are at the bottom of the spatial tier (Amin 1994). From this lowest spatial tier a huge number of people migrate towards the highest spatial tier, Dhaka Megacity. This survey revealed a bunch of forces of attraction that drag people toward the megacity. X1 = Central geographical location/ Accessible from all places; X2 = Nearest city; X3 = Availability of jobs; X4 = Easy access to city‘s informal economy; X5 = Presence of industries and factories; X6 = Higher income probability; X7 = Higher service facilities; X8 = ‗Dhaka means Taka‘ conception; X9 = Illuminating Dhaka; X10 = Better livelihood. Among these factors not all of them equally influence migrants to come to Dhaka. Only four have shown significant influence on dependent variable ‗migration‘ at 95% level of confidence. These ‗forces of attraction‘ are- availability of jobs (X3 ), easy access to city‘s informal economy (X4 ), ‗Dhaka means Taka‘ conception (X8 ) and Illuminating Dhaka (X9 ).

This survey represents that four potential ‗forces of attraction‘ termed as ‗availability of jobs‘, ‗easy access to city‘s informal economy‘, ‗‗Dhaka means Taka‘ conception‘ and ‗Illuminating Dhaka‘ play a significant role in ‗migration toward megacity‘. The Cox & Snell R Square and Nagelkerke R Square value are 0.798 and 0.848 respectively, which shows the usefulness of the model. Easy access to city‘s informal economy is one of the dominant forces of attraction. In Bangladesh based on 2005 LFS (Labor Force Survey) the unemployed rate in Bangladesh is only 4.3%. Of the 95.7% of employed population, 87.71% is in informal sectors. In Dhaka division 83.1% of the employed population is in informal sectors (BBS, ND). Workers employed in the informal sector increased by about 8% from the 1970s to 1980s (Amin 1994). In 1988, there were more than 500,000 rickshaw-pullers in Dhaka; a number that had increased to about 900,000 by the year 2002 (Ullah 2004). City‘s informal jobs include rickshaw pulling, hawker activities, roadside small business, day laboring etc.

Dhaka is the highest provider of industrial employment opportunities among all the statistical metropolitan areas (SMAs). Dhaka SMA, Chittagong SMA, Khulna SMA and Rajshahi SMA have 3,094,444 and 864,145 and 274,687 and 121,550 number of industrial employments respectively. Rural areas of Bangladesh are not well developed. Many people in there have fascination about Dhaka city. The high rise buildings, wide streets, glimmering lights, big shopping malls attract them. Todaro (1985) termed these features as ‗bright city lights‘. To them Dhaka is an illuminating city, which lights never shut down. In rural areas the concept ‗Dhaka means Taka‘ is an age old concept. It is evident that in rural areas the scope of earning is very limited. Whereas, in Dhaka there is always a huge chance of getting employed in any type of work as Dhaka is the biggest city having the largest number of urban population and as Dhaka is the center of all kinds of economic activities. That is why many rural people, who are in senile stage of their lives, tell the young one that Taka flies in the air of Dhaka and thus inspire them to move to Dhaka.

Conclusion
Rural-Urban migration is a historical phenomenon in Bangladesh. It plays the most significant role to the development of megacity Dhaka, although Dhaka was the regional center since mid 7th century. This paper discusses how rural-urban migration contributes to the development of megacity Dhaka. Actually Dhaka started to develop as an urban center from mid 7th century, the development continued in the Mughal era until 1800 A. D., when the British East India Company emphasized to the development of Kolkata. Until then rural-urban migration did not play any crucial role to the development of Dhaka city, but from the late 19th century, with the transfer of power from East India Company to British Raj, Dhaka again became the center of attraction for this Bengal region. And with this the onrush of rural people started to find their destination at Dhaka and thus rural-urban migration significantly started to contribute to the development of this city.
This paper also discusses the forces of attraction of megacity Dhaka. Among many forces only four forces have considerable influence over the household head to migrate to megacity. Huge number of migrants, attracted by these forces, rush to the megacity every year. The megacity‘s urban infrastructure is not capable of retain the migrants, and for this reason many of them are forced to find their destination in slums. This massive flow of migrants causes a fast but unsustainable development of Dhaka megacity.
Actually the rural areas of Bangladesh lack both economic and social opportunities. The huge migration flow towards the megacity shows that the government‘s policy of rural development and poverty alleviation failed to decrease the rural-out migration flow. This study finds that people come to megacity mainly due to economic reasons like getting employed. Creating more employment opportunities in the rural areas through establishing the small scale factories and RMG industries as well as social investment would be an effective measure to lessen the enormous migration flow towards megacity Dhaka.

References Afsar R. 2000. Rural-Urban Migration in Bangladesh: Causes, Consequences and Challenges . University Press Limited: Dhaka. Amin A. T. M. N. 1994. ―Economics of rural – urban relations reexamined in the light of growing environmental concerns‖. Regional Development Studies 1: 27- 54. Anh, D. N. 2003. ―Migration and Poverty in Asia: With reference to Bangladesh, China, the Philippines and Viet Nam‖, paper presented at Ad Hoc Expert Group Meeting on Migration and Development
, organized by the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, 27-29 August. Asaduzzaman, M. and Rob, A. M. 1997. Environmental Controls over Urbanisation of Dhaka City
. The Mappa: Dhaka. BBS. 1977.
Bangladesh National Population Census Report 1974
. Ministry of Planning, Government of Bangladesh: Dhaka BBS. 1984.
Bangladesh Population Census 1981: Analytical Findings and National Tables
. Ministry of Planning, Government of Bangladesh: Dhaka BBS. 1987.
Bangladesh Population Census 1981, Report on Urban Area: National Series
. Ministry of Planning, Government of Bangladesh: Dhaka. BBS. 1991.
Preliminary Report on Population Census 1991
. Ministry of Planning, Government of Bangladesh: Dhaka. BBS. 1997.
Bangladesh Population Census 1991: Urban Area Report. Ministry of Planning, Government of Bangladesh: Dhaka. BBS. 2003.
Population Census 2001, National Report (Provisional)
. Ministry of Planning, Government of Bangladesh: Dhaka. BBS. 2008.
Report on Survey of Manufacturing Industries 2005-06
. Ministry of Planning, Government of Bangladesh: Dhaka. BBS. 2011.
Preliminary Report on Population and Housing Census 2011
. Ministry of Planning, Government of Bangladesh: Dhaka. BBS. ND. Annual Labor Force Survey 2005-06
. Ministry of Planning, Government of Bangladesh: Dhaka.
Berner E. 2000. ―Poverty alleviation and the eviction of the poorest: towards urban land reform in the Philippines‖,
International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 24 (3): 554-566. Birt, Bradely. 1906.
Romance of an Eastern Capital
. Smith, Elder & Co.: London.
Burkart, K., et al. 2008. Megacity Dhaka: urban environment, informal settlements and public health,
Geographische Rundschau 4 (1): 5 –
10. Census. 1951.
Census Report of Pakistan 1951, vol. 3 (East Bengal)
. Karachi: Government of Pakistan. Census. 1961.
Census Report of Pakistan 1961
. Karachi: Government of Pakistan.
Chowdhury A. M. and Faruqui M. S.1991. ‗Physical growth of Dhaka City‘
Dhaka: Past Present Future
, Ahmed S.U edt. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh: Dhaka. CUS. 2006.
Slums of Urban Bangladesh: Mapping and Census, 2005
. Centre for Urban Studies, University of Dhaka: Dhaka.
D‘oyly, C. 1824. Antiquities of Dacca
. J. J. Landseer and Company: London. Dani, A. H. 1962.
Dacca: A Record of Its Changing Fortune. Asiatic Press: Dhaka. Geddes, P. 1917.
Town Planning Report on Dhaka, Bengal
. Bengal Secretariat Pub.: Calcutta: German, Erik and Pyne, Solana . 2010.
Disasters drive mass migration to Dhaka
. A report published in Global Post on September 8. http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/asia/100831/bangladesh-megacities-part-three-migrant
Haan, A. 1999. ―Livelihoods and poverty: the r ole of migration a critical review of the migration literature‖. Journal of Development Studies 36 (2): 1-47. Hall, P. 1997.
Cities in Civilization
. HarperCollins: London
Harris, J. R. and Todaro M. P. 1970. ―Migration, Unemployment and Development: A Two
-
sector Analysis‖.
The American Econ. Review 60 (1), pp. 126-38.
Hossain, Shahadat. 2008. ‗Rapid Urban Growth and Poverty in Dhaka City‘. Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology
5 (1). Hunter, W. W. 1976. A Statistical Account of Bengal: Dhaka
. Trubner Co.: London. Ing and KÖTTER, Theo. 2004. Risks and Opportunities of Urbanisation and Megacities, paper presented at Risk and Disaster Prevention and Management, FIG Working Week held at Athens, Greece, from May 22-27.
Ishtiaque, Asif and Mahmud, M. S. 2011. ‗Migrati on objectives and their fulfillment: A micro study of the rural- urban migrants of the slums of Dhaka city‘.
Geografia: Malaysian Journal of Society and Space 7 (4): 24-29.
Islam, N. and Khan, F. K. 1984. ‗High Class Residential Areas in Dhaka City‘.
Oriental Geographer 8 (1): 1-41. Islam, N. 1996a.
Dhaka: From City to Mega City
. Urban Studies Program: Dhaka. Islam, N. edt. 2001.
Urbanization, urban planning and development and urban governance: A reader for students
. Center for Urban Studies: Dhaka. Islam, N and Saleheen, M. 2006.
Rural-Urban Linkage and Migration Issue in Bangladesh: A Secondary Literature Study
. A Report published by Centre for Urban Studies. Karim, A. 1964.
Dacca-The Mughal Capital
. Asiatic Society of East Pakistan: Dhaka. Khan, M. H. and
Hossain S. 2001. ‗Changing urban environment in Dhaka City‘.
Bangladesh Political Science Review 1 (1): 93-104. Mahbub, A. Q. M. 1997. Mobility Behaviour of Working People in Bangladesh: Rural-Rural and Rural- Urban Circulation
. Urban Studies Programme, Department of Geography and Environment, University of Dhaka: Dhaka.
Maligalig, D. S., Cuevas, S. and Rosario, A. 2008. ‗Informal Employment in Bangladesh‘, paper presented to the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics during the inception mission for RETA 6430: Measuring the Informal Sector on 17 September 2008 at the Bangladesh Resident Mission, ADB. Rasheed, K. B. Sajjadur. 2008.
Bangladesh- Resources and Environmental Profile
. A H Development Publishing House: Dhaka. Rudduck, Greenfell. 1964.
Towns and Villages of Pakistan
. Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan: Karachi. 376
Siddiqui, K. et al. 2000.
Overcoming the Governance Crisis in Dhaka City
. University Press Limited: Dhaka. Taifoor, S. M. 1952.
Glimpses of Old Dhaka
. Saogat Press: Dhaka. Talukder, S. H. 2006. Managing Megacities: A Case Study of Metropolitan Regional Governance for Dhaka, An Unpublished Ph. D thesis submitted to Murdock University, Australia. Taylor, J. 1840.
Sketch of the Topography and Statistics of Dacca
. Military Orphan Press: Calcutta. Todaro, M. P. 1985. ―Rural
-
urban migration: theory and policies‖, in Economics for a developing world.
2
nd edn
.
Longman: London; pp. 209-220. Travernnier, J. 1925.
Travels in India
. Oxford University Press: London. (Translated from French Edition of 1976 by William Crooke).
Ullah, A. K. M. Ahsan. 2004. ‗Bright City Lights and Slums of Dhaka City: Determinants of
Rural-
Urban Migration in Bangladesh‘. Migration Letters 1 (1): 26-41.
‗World Urbanization Prospect: The 2009 Revision‘ published by United Nati ons, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division.