Paul the Apostle (Greek: Παῦλος Paulos; c. 5 – c. 67), original name Saul of Tarsus (Greek: Σαῦλος Ταρσεύς Saulos Tarseus), was an apostle (though not one of the Twelve Apostles) who taught the gospel of Christ to the first-century world. He is generally considered one of the most important figures of the Apostolic Age. In the mid-30s to the mid-50s, he founded several churches in Asia Minor and Europe. Paul used his status as both a Jew and aRoman citizen to advantage in his ministry to both Jewish and Roman audiences.
Fourteen of the twenty-seven books in the New Testament have traditionally been attributed to Paul, and approximately half of the Acts of the Apostlesdeals with Paul's life and works. Seven of the epistles are undisputed by scholars as being authentic, with varying degrees of argument about the remainder. The Pauline authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews, already doubted in the 2nd and 3rd centuries but almost unquestioningly accepted from the 5th to the 16th centuries, is now almost universally rejected by scholars. The other six are believed by some scholars to have come from followers writing in his name, using material from Paul's surviving letters and letters written by him that no longer survive. Other scholars argue that the idea of a pseudonymous author for the disputed epistles raises many problems.
Today, his epistles continue to be vital roots of the theology, worship, and pastoral life in the Roman and Protestant traditions of the West, as well as the Orthodox traditions of the East. Among the many other apostles and missionaries involved in the spread of the Christian faith, his influence on Christian thought and practice has been characterized as being as "profound as it is pervasive". Augustine of Hippo developed Paul's idea that salvationis based on faith and not "works of the law". Martin Luther's interpretation ofPaul's writings influenced Luther's doctrine of sola fide.
LIFE
A native of Tarsus, the capital city in the Roman province of Cilicia,[5] Paul wrote that he was "a Hebrew born of Hebrews", aPharisee,[26] and one who advanced in Judaism beyond many of his peers. He also wrote that he was "unmarried", at least as early as his writing of I Corinthians 7:8, however some hold that he may have been married prior to that, due to certain textual analyses of his writings,[27] and other similar rationale. His initial reaction to the newly formed Christian movement was to zealously persecute its early followers and to violently attempt to destroy the movement. Paul's dramatic conversionwhile on the road to Damascus was clearly a life-altering event for him, changing him from being one of the early movement's most ardent persecutors to being one of its most fervent supporters.[8]
After his conversion, Paul began to preach that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God.[28] His leadership, influence, and legacy led to the formation of communities dominated by Gentile groups that worshiped Jesus, adhered to the "Judaic moral code", but relaxed or abandoned the ritual and dietary teachings of the Law of Moses. He taught that these laws and rituals had either been fulfilled in the life of Christ or were symbolic precursors of Christ, though the exact relationship between Paul the Apostle and Judaism is still disputed. Paul taught of the life and works of Jesus Christ and his teaching of a New Covenantestablished through Jesus' death and resurrection. The Bible does not record Paul's death.
EARLY LIFE
The two main sources of information by which we have access to the earliest segments of Paul's career are the Bible's Book of Acts and the autobiographical elements of Paul's letters to the early church communities. Paul was likely born between the years of 5 BC and 5 AD.[29] The Book of Acts indicates that Paul was a Roman citizen by birth, more affirmatively describing his father as such, but some scholars have taken issue with the evidence presented by the text.[30][Acts 16:37][Acts 22:25-29]
His was a devout Jewish family in the city of Tarsus—one of the largest trade centers on the Mediterranean coast.[31] It had been in existence several hundred years prior to his birth. It was renowned for its university, one in which students could receive a superior education. During the time of Alexander the Great, Tarsus was the most influential city in Asia Minor.[32]
In his letters, Paul reflected heavily from his knowledge of Stoic philosophy, using Stoic terms and metaphors to assist his new Gentile converts in their understanding of the revealed word of God.
He would also rely heavily on the training he received concerning the law and the prophets, utilizing this knowledge to convince his Jewish countrymen of the unity of past Old Testament prophecy and covenants with the fulfilling of these in Jesus Christ.[34] His wide spectrum of experiences and education gave the "Apostle to the Gentiles"[Rom. 1:5] [11:13] [Gal. 2:8]the tools which he later would use to effectively spread the Gospel and to establish the church solidly in many[35] parts of the Roman Empire.[34]
Paul referred to himself as being "of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of the Hebrews; as touching the law, a Pharisee".[Phil. 3:5]
The Bible reveals very little about Paul's family. Paul's nephew, his sister's son, is mentioned in Acts 23:16. Acts also quotes Paul indirectly referring to his father by saying he, Paul, was "a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee".[Acts 23:6] Paul refers to his mother in Romans 16:13 as among those at Rome. In Romans 16:7 he states that his relatives, Andronicus andJunia, were Christians before he was and were prominent among the apostles.
The family had a history of religious piety.[2 Timothy 1:3][36] Apparently the family lineage had been very attached to Pharisaic traditions and observances for generations.[Philippians 3:5-6] Young Saul learned how to make the mohair with which tentswere made.[Acts 18:1-3] Later as a Christian missionary, that trade became a means of support for him, one that he could practice anywhere. It also was to become an initial connection with Priscilla and Aquila with whom he would partner in tentmaking[Acts 18:3] and later become very important teammates as fellow missionaries.[Rom. 16:4]
While he was still fairly young, he was sent to Jerusalem to receive his education at the school of Gamaliel,[Acts 22:3] one of the most noted rabbis in history. The Hillel school was noted for giving their students a balanced education, likely giving Paul broad exposure to classical literature, philosophy, and ethics.[34] Some of his family may have resided in Jerusalem since later the son of one of his sisters saved his life there.[Acts 23:16] Nothing more is known of his background until he takes an active part in the martyrdom of Stephen.[Acts 7:58-60;22:20] Paul confesses that "beyond measure" he persecuted the church of God prior to his conversion.[Gal. 1:13-14] [Phil. 3:6] [Acts 8:1-3] Although we know from his biography and from Acts that Paul could speak Hebrew and Aramaic, modern scholarship suggests that Koine Greek was his first language.
CONVERSION
Paul's conversion can be dated to 31–36[39][40][41] by his reference to it in one of his letters.[18] There are three accounts of his conversion (Greek: μετάνοια metanoia) in the Acts of the Apostles: Acts 9:1-31, 22:1-22, and 26:9-24.
It took place on the road to Damascus where he reported having experienced avision of the resurrected Jesus. The account in Acts 9:4 says that "he [Saul] fell to the earth, and heard a voice saying unto him, Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me?" Saul replied in 9:5, "Who art thou, Lord? And the Lord said, I am Jesus whom thou persecutest: [it is] hard for thee to kick against the pricks." (The account inActs 22:9 says his companions saw the light, but did not understand the voice of him who was speaking to Saul.)[42]
From that experience he was blinded for three days and had to be led into Damascus by the hand. His sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus. This life-changing experience and revelation convinced Paul that God indeed had chosen Jesus to be the promised messiah. Luke, the author of Acts of the Apostles, likely learned of his conversion from Paul, from the church in Jerusalem, or from thechurch in Antioch.[42]
There remain skeptics who dispute that Paul ever received such a revelation. Religious scholar Reza Aslan states, "The story of Paul’s dramatic conversion on the road to Damascus is a bit of propagandistic legend created by the evangelist Luke; Paul himself never recounts the story of being blinded by the sight of Jesus."[43] In Galatians 1:16 he writes that God "was pleased to reveal his son to me." In 1 Corinthians 15:8, in listing the order in which Jesus appeared to his disciples after his resurrection, Paul says "last of all, as to one untimely born, He appeared to me also."(NASB) These passages from his epistles, coupled with the two separate accounts he is reported to have given to both Jewish and Roman authorities in Acts, have been interpreted to refer to his road-to-Damascus conversion experience which he elsewhere had described as the resurrected Jesus appearing to him.
POST-CONVERSION
At once he began to preach in the synagogues that Jesus is the Son of God. All those who heard him were astonished and asked, "Isn't he the man who raised havoc in Jerusalem among those who call on this name? And hasn't he come here to take them as prisoners to the chief priests?" Yet Saul grew more and more influential and baffled the Jews living in Damascus by proving that Jesus is the Messiah.
— Acts 9:20-22
Paul said that he received the Gospel not from any man, but by "the revelation of Jesus Christ".[Gal 1:11-16] Paul declared his independence from the Jerusalem community[6]:pp.316–320 (possibly in the Cenacle), but agreed with it on the nature and content of the gospel.[Gal 1:22-24]
In the opening verses of Romans 1, Paul provides a litany of his own apostolic appointment to preach among the Gentiles[Gal. 1:16] and his post-conversion convictions about the risen Christ.[9]
Paul described himself as a servant of Jesus Christ; having experienced an unforeseen, sudden, startling change, due to all-powerful grace—not the fruit of his reasoning or thoughts;[Gal. 1:12-15] [1 Cor. 15:10] having seen Christ as did the other apostles when Christ appeared to him[1 Cor. 15:8] as he appeared to Peter, to James, to the Twelve, after his Resurrection;[1 Cor. 9:1] called to be an apostle; set apart for the gospel of God.
Paul described Jesus as having been promised by God beforehand through his prophets in the holy Scriptures; being the true messiah and the Son of God; having biological lineage from David ("according to the flesh");[44] having been declared to be the Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from the dead; being Jesus Christ our Lord; the One through whom we have received grace and apostleship to bring about the obedience of faith for the sake of his name among all the nations, "including you who are called to belong to Jesus Christ".
Jesus
lives in heaven; is God's Son; would soon return.[9]
The Cross he now believed Jesus' death was a voluntary sacrifice that reconciled sinners with God.[Rom. 5:6-10] [Phil. 2:8]
The Law he had believed the law (Jewish Torah) kept people in a right relationship with God;[Gal. 2:16] [Gal. 3:12] he now believed the law only reveals the extent of people's enslavement to the power of sin—a power that must be broken by Christ.[Rom. 3:20b] [7:7-12]
Gentiles
he had believed Gentiles were outside the covenant that God made with Israel; he now believed Gentiles and Jews were united as the people of God in Christ Jesus.[Gal. 3:28]
Circumcision
had believed circumcision was the rite through which males became part of Israel, an exclusive community of God's chosen people;[Phil. 3:3-5] he now believed that neither circumcision nor uncircumcision means anything, but that the new creation is what counts in the sight of God,[Gal. 6:15] and that this new creation is a work of Christ in the life of believers, making them part of the church, an inclusive community of Jews and Gentiles reconciled with God through faith.[Rom. 6:4]
Persecution
had believed his violent persecution of the church to be an indication of his zeal for his religion;[Phil. 3:6] he now believed Jewish hostility toward the church was sinful opposition that would incur God's wrath;[1 Thess. 2:14-16][8]:p.236 he believed he was halted by Christ when his fury was at its height;[Acts 9:1-2] It was "through zeal" that he persecuted the Church,[Philippians 3:6] and he obtained mercy because he had "acted ignorantly in unbelief".[1 Tim. 1:13][36]
The Last Days had believed God's messiah would put an end to the old age of evil and initiate a new age of righteousness; he now believed this would happen in stages that had begun with the resurrection of Jesus, but the old age would continue until Jesus returns.[Rom. 16:25] [1 Cor. 10:11] [Gal. 1:4] [8]:p.236
Paul's writings give some insight into his thinking regarding his relationship with Judaism. He is strongly critical both theologically and empirically of claims of moral or lineal superiority [Rom. 2:16-26] of Jews while conversely strongly sustaining the notion of a special place for the Children of Israel.[9-11]
What is remarkable about such a conversion is the changes in the thinking that had to take place. He had to change his concept of who the messiah was, particularly what he had perceived as the absurdity of accepting a crucified messiah.[1 Cor. 1:21-25] Perhaps more challenging was changing his conception of the ethnic superiority of the Jewish people. There are debates as to whether Paul understood himself as commissioned to take the gospel to the Gentiles at the moment of his conversion.[45]
Early ministry
Bab Kisan, believed to be where Paul escaped from persecution in Damascus
After his conversion, Paul went to Damascus, where Acts states he was healed of his blindness and baptized by Ananias of Damascus.[46] Paul says that it was in Damascus that he barely escaped death.[2 Cor. 11:32] Paul also says that he then went first to Arabia, and then came back to Damascus.[Gal. 1:17][47] Paul's trip to Arabia is not mentioned anywhere else in the Bible, and some suppose he actually traveled to Mt. Sinai for meditations in the desert.[48][49] He describes in Galatians how three years after his conversion he went toJerusalem. There he met James and stayed with Simon Peter for 15 days.[Gal. 1:13-24] Paul located Mount Sinai in Arabia in Galatians 4:24-25.
Paul asserted that he received the Gospel not from man, but directly by the revelation of Jesus Christ.[Gal. 1:11-12] Paul said he was almost totally independent from the Jerusalem community.[6]:pp.316–320 He appeared eager to bring material support to Jerusalem from the various budding Gentile churches that he planted. In his writings, Paul used the persecutions he endured, in terms of physical beatings and verbal assaults, to avow proximity and union with Jesus and as a validation of his teaching.
Paul's narrative in Galatians states that 14 years after his conversion he went again to Jerusalem.[Gal. 2:1-10] It is not completely known what happened during these 'unknown years', but both Acts and Galatians provide some partial details.[50] At the end of this time, Barnabas went to find Paul and brought him back to Antioch. [Acts 11:26]
When a famine occurred in Judea, around 45–46,[51] Paul and Barnabas journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial support from the Antioch community.[52] According to Acts, Antioch had become an alternative center for Christians following the dispersion of the believers after the death of Stephen. It was in Antioch that the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians".[Acts 11:26]
First missionary journey[edit]
The author of the Acts arranges Paul's travels into three separate journeys. The first journey,[Acts 13-14] led initially by Barnabas,[53] takes Paul from Antioch to Cyprus then southern Asia Minor (Anatolia), and back to Antioch. In Cyprus, Paul rebukes and blinds Elymas the magician[Acts 13:8-12] who was criticizing their teachings. From this point on, Paul is described as the leader of the group.[54]
They sail to Perga in Pamphylia. John Mark leaves them and returns to Jerusalem. Paul and Barnabas go on to Pisidian Antioch. On Sabbath they go to the synagogue. The leaders invite them to speak. Paul reviews Israelite history from life in Egypt to King David. He introduces Jesus as a descendant of David brought to Israel by God. He said that his team came to town to bring the message of salvation. He recounts the story of Jesus' death and resurrection. He quotes from theSeptuagint[55] to assert that Jesus was the promised Christos who brought them forgiveness for their sins. Both the Jews and the 'God-fearing' Gentiles invited them to talk more next Sabbath. At that time almost the whole city gathered. This upset some influential Jews who spoke against them. Paul used the occasion to announce a change in his mission which from then on would be to the Gentiles.[Acts 13:13-48]
Antioch served as a major Christian center for Paul's evangelizing.[6]
Council of Jerusalem[edit]
Most scholars agree that a vital meeting between Paul and the Jerusalem church took place some time in the years 48 to 50,[18] described in Acts 15:2 and usually seen as the same event mentioned by Paul in Galatians 2:1.[18] The key question raised was whether Gentile converts needed to be circumcised.[56] At this meeting, Paul states in his letter to the Galatians that Peter, James, and John accepted Paul's mission to the Gentiles.
Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, in Paul's letters, and some appear in both.[57] For example, the Jerusalem visit for famine relief[Acts 11:27-30] apparently corresponds to the "first visit" (to Cephas and James only).[Gal. 1:18-20][57] F. F. Bruce suggested that the "fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather than from his first visit to Jerusalem.[58]
Incident at Antioch
Despite the agreement achieved at the Council of Jerusalem, as understood by Paul, Paul recounts how he later publicly confronted Peter in a dispute sometimes called the "Incident at Antioch", over Peter's reluctance to share a meal with Gentile Christians in Antioch because they did not strictly adhere to Jewish customs.[59]
Writing later of the incident, Paul recounts, "I opposed [Peter] to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong", and says he told Peter, "You are a Jew, yet you live like a Gentile and not like a Jew. How is it, then, that you force Gentiles to follow Jewish customs?"[Gal. 2:11-14] Paul also mentions that even Barnabas, his traveling companion and fellow apostle until that time, sided with Peter.[60]
The final outcome of the incident remains uncertain. The Catholic Encyclopedia[61] suggests that Paul won the argument, because "Paul's account of the incident leaves no doubt that Peter saw the justice of the rebuke". However Paul himself never mentions a victory and L. Michael White's From Jesus to Christianity draws the opposite conclusion: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as persona non grata, never again to return".[62]
The primary source account of the Incident at Antioch is Paul's letter to the Galatians.
Second missionary journey
Paul left for his second missionary journey from Jerusalem, in late Autumn 49,[65] after the meeting of the Council of Jerusalem where the circumcision question was debated. On their trip around the Mediterranean sea, Paul and his companion Barnabas stopped in Antioch where they had a sharp argument about taking John Mark with them on their trips. The book of Acts said that John Mark had left them in a previous trip and gone home. Unable to resolve the dispute, Paul and Barnabas decided to separate; Barnabas took John Mark with him, while Silas joined Paul.
Paul and Silas initially visited Tarsus (Paul's birthplace), Derbe and Lystra. In Lystra, they met Timothy, a disciple who was spoken well of, and decided to take him with them. The Church kept growing, adding believers, and strengthening in faith daily.[Acts 16:5]
In Philippi, Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a servant girl, whose masters were then unhappy about the loss of income her soothsaying provided. (Acts 16:16–24) They turned the city against the missionaries, and Paul and Silas were put in jail. After a miraculous earthquake, the gates of the prison fell apart and Paul and Silas could have escaped but remained; this event led to the conversion of the jailor.(Acts 16:25–40) They continued traveling, going by Berea and then to Athens where Paul preached to the Jews and God-fearing Greeks in the synagogue and to the Greek intellectuals in the Areopagus.
Around 50–52, Paul spent 18 months in Corinth.[18] The reference in Acts to Proconsul Gallio helps ascertain this date (cf.Gallio inscription).[18] In Corinth, Paul met Priscilla and Aquila who became faithful believers and helped Paul through his other missionary journeys. The couple followed Paul and his companions to Ephesus, and stayed there to start one of the strongest and most faithful churches at that time. In 52, the missionaries sailed to Caesarea to greet the Church there and then traveled north to Antioch where they stayed for about a year before leaving again on their third missionary journey.[66]
Third missionary journey
Paul began his third missionary journey by traveling all around the region of Galatia and Phrygia to strengthen, teach and rebuke the believers. Paul then traveled to Ephesus, an important center of early Christianity, and stayed there for almost three years. He performed numerous miracles, healing people and casting out demons, and he apparently organized missionary activity in other regions.[67] Paul left Ephesus after an attack from a local silversmith resulted in a pro-Artemis riot involving most of the city.[18] During his stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote four letters to the church in Corinth admonishing them for their pagan behavior.[42]
Paul went through Macedonia into Achaea and made ready to continue on to Syria, but he changed his plans and traveled back through Macedonia because of Jews who had made a plot against him. At this time (56–57), it is likely that Paul visited Corinth for three months.[18] In Romans 15:19 Paul wrote that he visited Illyricum, but he may have meant what would now be called Illyria Graeca,[68] which lay in the northern part of modern Albania, but was at that time a division of the Roman province of Macedonia.[69]
Paul and his companions visited other cities on their way back to Jerusalem such as Philippi, Troas, Miletus, Rhodes, andTyre. Paul finished his trip with a stop in Caesarea where he and his companions stayed with Philip the Evangelist before finally arriving at Jerusalem.[70] [Acts 21:8-10] [21:15]
Journey to Rome and beyond
After Paul's arrival in Jerusalem at the end of his third missionary journey, he became involved in a serious conflict with some "Asian Jews" (most likely from Roman Asia). The conflict eventually led to Paul's arrest and imprisonment in Caesarea for two years. Finally, Paul and his companions sailed for Rome where Paul was to stand trial for his alleged crimes. Acts states that Paul preached in Rome for two years from his rented home while awaiting trial. It does not state what happened after this time, but some sources state that Paul was freed by Nero and continued to preach in Rome, even though that seems unlikely based on Nero's historical cruelty to Early Christians. It is possible that Paul also traveled to other countries like Spain and Britain.[71] See His final days spent in Rome section below.
Among the writings of the early Christians, Clement of Rome said that Paul was "Herald (of the Gospel of Christ) in the West", and that "he had gone to the extremity of the west".[72][73] Chrysostom indicated that Paul preached in Spain: "For after he had been in Rome, he returned to Spain, but whether he came thence again into these parts, we know not".[74] Cyril of Jerusalem said that Paul, "fully preached the Gospel, and instructed even imperial Rome, and carried the earnestness of his preaching as far as Spain, undergoing conflicts innumerable, and performing Signs and wonders".[75] The Muratorian fragment mentions "the departure of Paul from the city [of Rome] [5a] (39) when he journeyed to Spain".[76]