...Chapter 8 – Systems oriented theories 1. Introduction Rationale: Why corporate management might elect to voluntarily provide particular information to parties outside the organisation. (Page 250 & 251) Gray, Owen and Adams (1996): Legitimacy Theory and Stakeholder Theory are two theorietical perspectives that have been adopted by a number of researchers in recent years. The theories are sometimes referred to as “systems-oriented theories”. Within a systems-based perspective, the entity is assumed to be influenced by, and in turn to have influence upon, the society in which it operates. Within both legitmacy theory and Stakeholder theory, accounting disclosure polices are considered to constitute a strategy to influence the organisation’s relationships with the other parties with which it interacts. 2. Political Economy Theory According to Gray, Owen and Adams (1996), Legitmacy Theory and Stakeholder Theory are both derived from a broader theory which has been called “Political Economy Theory”. “Political Economy” as defined by Gary and Owen as the “social, political and economic framework within which human life takes places”. The perspective embraced is that society, politics and economies are inseparable, and economic issues cannot meaningly be investigated in the absence of considerations about the political, social and institutional framework in which the economic activity takes place. Gurthrie and Parket (1990) states that corporate reports cannot...
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...Chapter 8 – Systems oriented theories 1. Introduction Rationale: Why corporate management might elect to voluntarily provide particular information to parties outside the organisation. (Page 250 & 251) Gray, Owen and Adams (1996): Legitimacy Theory and Stakeholder Theory are two theorietical perspectives that have been adopted by a number of researchers in recent years. The theories are sometimes referred to as “systems-oriented theories”. Within a systems-based perspective, the entity is assumed to be influenced by, and in turn to have influence upon, the society in which it operates. Within both legitmacy theory and Stakeholder theory, accounting disclosure polices are considered to constitute a strategy to influence the organisation’s relationships with the other parties with which it interacts. 2. Political Economy Theory According to Gray, Owen and Adams (1996), Legitmacy Theory and Stakeholder Theory are both derived from a broader theory which has been called “Political Economy Theory”. “Political Economy” as defined by Gary and Owen as the “social, political and economic framework within which human life takes places”. The perspective embraced is that society, politics and economies are inseparable, and economic issues cannot meaningly be investigated in the absence of considerations about the political, social and institutional framework in which the economic activity takes place. Gurthrie and Parket (1990) states that corporate reports cannot...
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...ABSTRACT. The notion social class attains a well-defined theoretical content in the works of the classical political economists, who defined classes on the basis of the specific income form that each category of people (class) obtains. This approach to class constitutes a first form of a "friendly merger" between political economy and sociology. When combined with the classical labor value theory, it has led to a theory of class exploitation of the laboring class by the capitalist class. As economic theory became increasingly apologetic after the "Marginalist Revolution" (setting itself the aim of justifying capitalism), the theory of class has been totally banished from the corpus of "modern (neoclassical) economic science." This paper claims that the scientific elements inherent in classical political economy's class theory were preserved by the Marxist class theory, which further revolutionized the classical approach, creating a new, purely non-economistic and non-mechanistic "relationist" class theory, an d forming thus a vivid economic-sociological approach to social classes. On the basis of the Marxist approach, complex problems concerning the class structure of contemporary societies can be tackled. I Introduction THE THEORY OF CLASSES MAKES UP one of the most controversial chapters of the social sciences, in the sense that it comprises a forefront of confrontation between the different theoretical schools that are formulated within the field. To clarify what is to...
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...Systems-Oriented Theories Question 1: In relation to Political Economy Theory, which of the following statements is false? A: Political Economy Theory views society, politics and economics as inseparable B*: Political Economy Theory is derived from Positive Accounting Theory C: Legitimacy Theory and Stakeholder Theory are derived from Political Economy Theory D: Political Economy Theory can be divided into “classical” and “bourgeois” political economy theories Question 2: The difference between “classical” and “bourgeois” political economy theory is that: A*: “Classical” political economy theory explicitly considers class conflict and the role of the state in its analysis while “bourgeois” political economy theory does not B: “Bourgeois” political economy theory explicitly considers class conflict and the role of the state in its analysis, while “classical” political economy theory does not C: “Classical” political economy theory is a normative theory whereas “bourgeois” political economy theory is a positive theory D: “Bourgeois” political economy theory is a normative theory whereas “classical” political economy theory is a positive theory Question 3: Which of the following statements is false? A: Legitimacy theory is derived from “classical” political economy theory B*: Legitimacy theory suggests that organisations will act in a way that society perceives as legitimate C: Legitimacy theory relies upon the notion of the “social contract” D: Legitimacy theory asserts...
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...1. Critically compare and contrast two different social movement theories. The study of social movements is a very broad subject and with every new movement paves a way for new theories to be developed. Social movements is usually defined as a group of individuals who share the same ideology and together all try to obtain different political, social and economic goals. Among the current leading social movements looked at today includes resource mobilization, collective behaviour theory, political opportunities theory and frame alignment theory. Throughout this essay I will compare and contrast the two theories which are resource mobilization and the ‘new social movements theory’. Research for resource mobilization theory was introduced during the 1970’s . Resource mobilization was a social movement based on ‘the idea that successful movements acquire resources and create advantageous exchange relationships with other groups as they achieve success in fulfilling their goals’(Constain,1992). Within the framework of this theory outlines two distinct approaches which include: ‘organizational/entrepreneurial’ model presented by McCarthy and Zald and secondly, the socio-political or ‘political/interactive’ argued more favourably by authors such as Tilly, Diani, and McAdam. On the other hand the ‘new social movements theory revolves as an attempt to define the different features of more current social movements which handle global ecology and Native rights. These type of movements...
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...REVISTA DE SOCIOLOGÍA, Nº 28 (2013) pp. 31-49 Elites, political elites and social change in modern societies1 Luis Garrido Vergara* Resumen Los estudios académicos acerca de las élites políticas poseen una vibrante historia reciente. El objetivo aquí es proveer un resumen selectivo de esa historia, enfocándose en la importancia de la distinción social y en las teorías de la estructura de poder como el marco teórico para comprender la influencia de las élites políticas en el cambio social. Dado que nuevas perspectivas y preocupaciones han surgido en este campo, la organización de este artículo no es completamente cronológica. Aunque puedan haberse ignorado muchas contribuciones relevantes, la intención aquí es brindar algún sentido de la riqueza e importancia de lo que han logrado los académicos acerca de la relación entre élites y representación, los vínculos entre élites, democracia y cambio social y las teorías de la estructura de poder. En este artículo también se estudia hasta qué grado la introducción de una nueva metodología de investigación por parte de la teoría de la dominación de clase de Domhoff abrió una nueva perspectiva en los estudios sobre las élites. Finalmente, se presentan una estrategia de investigación para las élites y dos conclusiones principales. Palabras clave: Élites políticas - cambio social - estructura de poder - representación. Abstract Scholarly studies of elites and political elites have a vibrant recent history. My aim here is to provide a selective...
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...Nearly as old as philosophy itself, social contract theory is the outlook that persons’ moral and political obligations are dependent upon a contract or agreement among them to form the society in which they live. Socrates uses something quite like a social contract argument to expound to Crito why he must stay in prison and accept the death penalty. However, social contract theory is properly associated with modern moral and political theory and is given its first full exposition and defense by Thomas Hobbes. After Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau are the best known proponents of this enormously influential theory, which has been one of the most paramount theories within moral and political theory throughout the history of the modern West. More recently, philosophers from different perspectives have offered new criticisms of social contract theory. In particular, feminists and race-conscious philosophers have argued that social contract theory is at least an incomplete picture of our moral and political lives. In addition, it might in fact camouflage some of the ways in which the contract is itself parasitical upon the subjugations of classes of persons. . Short Biography for Thomas Hobbes: Thomas Hobbes, 1588-1679, lived during the most crucial period of early modern England’s history. To describe this conflict in the most general of terms, it was a clash between the King and his supporters, the Monarchists, who preferred the traditional authority of a monarch...
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...Mark Scheme (Results) Summer 2010 GCE GCE Government & Politics (6GP03) Paper 3B Edexcel Limited. Registered in England and Wales No. 4496750 Registered Office: One90 High Holborn, London WC1V 7BH Edexcel is one of the leading examining and awarding bodies in the UK and throughout the world. We provide a wide range of qualifications including academic, vocational, occupational and specific programmes for employers. Through a network of UK and overseas offices, Edexcel’s centres receive the support they need to help them deliver their education and training programmes to learners. For further information, please call our GCE line on 0844 576 0025, our GCSE team on 0844 576 0027, or visit our website at www.edexcel.com. If you have any subject specific questions about the content of this Mark Scheme that require the help of a subject specialist, you may find our Ask The Expert email service helpful. Ask The Expert can be accessed online at the following link: http://www.edexcel.com/Aboutus/contact-us/ Summer 2010 Publications Code UA024034 All the material in this publication is copyright © Edexcel Ltd 2010 2 6GP03_3B 1006 General Marking Guidance • All candidates must receive the same treatment. Examiners must mark the first candidate in exactly the same way as they mark the last. Mark schemes should be applied positively. Candidates must be rewarded for what they have shown they can do rather than penalised for omissions. Examiners should mark according...
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...Accounting Theory is designed to provide students with an understanding of historical and contemporary issues that influence the development of accounting thought. As it has developed accounting theory has three main approaches, the descriptive or positive, the normative and the critical viewpoints. Based on these theoretical perspectives this unit will examine current issues such as social and environmental accountability, the ethical and global dimensions of accounting and the political context within which accounting policy decisions are made. The unit will take a research focus in that the work of researchers in accounting will be discussed. Accounting Theory is designed to provide students with an understanding of historical and contemporary issues that influence the development of accounting thought. As it has developed accounting theory has three main approaches, the descriptive or positive, the normative and the critical viewpoints. Based on these theoretical perspectives this unit will examine current issues such as social and environmental accountability, the ethical and global dimensions of accounting and the political context within which accounting policy decisions are made. The unit will take a research focus in that the work of researchers in accounting will be discussed. Accounting Theory is designed to provide students with an understanding of historical and contemporary issues that influence the development of accounting thought. As it has developed accounting...
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...POSITIVE ACCOUNTING THEORY, POLITICAL COSTS AND SOCIAL DISCLOSURE ANALYSES: A CRITICAL LOOK Markus J. Milne Accountancy and Business Law University of Otago Dunedin New Zealand Ph: 64-3-479-8120 Fax: 64-3-479-8450 Email: mmilne@commerce.otago.ac.nz POSITIVE ACCOUNTING THEORY, POLITICAL COSTS AND SOCIAL DISCLOSURE ANALYSES: A CRITICAL LOOK* ABSTRACT This paper critically reviews the literature seeking to establish evidence for a positive accounting theory of corporate social disclosures. It carefully traces through the original work of Watts and Zimmerman (1978) showing their concern with the lobbying behaviour of large US oil companies during the 1970s. Such companies were argued to be abusing monopolists and likely targets of selfinterested politicians pursuing wealth transfers in the form of taxes, regulations and other ‘political costs’. Watts and Zimmerman’s reference to “social responsibility” is shown to be a passing remark, and most likely refers to “advocacy advertising”, a widespread practice amongst large US oil companies at that time. Subsequent literature that relies on Watts and Zimmerman to present a case for social disclosures is shown to extend their original arguments. In the process, concern over the “high profits” of companies is shown to diminish, and the notion of political costs is so broadened that it blurs with other social theories of disclosure. Consequently, the positive accounting based social disclosures literature fails to provide distinct...
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...of the critical political economy approach to media analysis. This task will be achieved by first delivering a brief historical overview of this scholarly discipline. Additionally, and by way of a thorough inquiry of the pertinent literature, this paper will highlight the critical boundaries of this Marxist social theory. Moreover, this essay will contend that in an attempt to overcome these perceived limitations, contemporary proponents of the critical political economy of the media have in fact adopted a conciliatory position with the cultural studies approach. Indeed, this paper will deliver an understanding of the emergence of critical theory in social analysis. Consequently, through...
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...Political analysts attempt to provide an understanding of the workings of the modern state had necessitated the employment of certain philosophies, thoughts and theories in order to simplify and clarify their assumptions about the political system and how it works. Some of these analytical tools or methods include – the Systems theory, Group theory, Political Development theory, Power theory, Frustration Aggression theory and the Elites theory among others. Given these plethora of theories in the social sciences and bearing in mind that, no meaningful research can be undertaken in the absence of a sound theoretical base, this study adopts the Systems theory in order to explain the adoption of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by the United...
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...Normative theory Media theory describes the relationship between media and society which is associated with complex social, political, economical and philosophical principles. A type of media theory termed as ‘Normative theory’ refers to what the media must be doing in a society rather what the media is actually doing. Generally, the central thoughts about obligations of mass communication will be constant with other principles and arrangements in a society. According to Siebert et.al, in their book ‘Four theories of the Press’, the press takes the responsibility of forms and coloration of political as well as social structures within the context in which it operates (1956, pp.1-2). The normative political model of media finds to interfere in the operations of media and restrain the inequality in the surrounding also enables the freedom and brings improvement in the access of public (Siebert et.al, 1956). The press and other media have their own view that reflects the law implemented in their society and runs it accordingly. Moreover, social solidarity, active participation, cohesion, cultural diversity and social responsibility are also concerned by the media. Every culture has its own principles, laws, regulations and priorities (Normative media theory, 2011). There are different media theories which are being implemented by various countries and their localities depending on their own usage and requirements. These theories may include Authoritarian theory which...
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...1956 three professors of communication-Fred S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm-brought out their Four Theories of the Press which went a long way in establishing a typology in the minds of journalism educators and students. Siebert, Peterson and Schramm discuss journalism philosophy presenting four theories (or concepts): 1. the authoritarian theory, 2. the libertarian theory, 3. the communist theory and 4 the social responsibility theory. Very briefly, here are the main characterstics of each of these theories. Authoritarian: The state, as the highest expression of institutionalized structure, supersedes the individual and makes it possible for the individual to acquire and develop a stable and harmonious life Mass communication, then, supports the state and the government in power so that total society may advance and the state may be viable and attain its objectives. The State (the elite that runs the state) directs the citizenry, which is not considered competent and interested enough to make critical political decisions. One man or an elite group is placed in a leadership role. As the group or person controls society generally it (or he or she) also controls the mass media since they are recognized as vital instruments of social control. The mass media, under authoritarianism, are educators and propagandists by which the power elite exercise social control. Generally the media are privately owned, although the leader or his elite group may own units in the total...
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...Ideational liberalism Ideational liberalism views the configuration of domestic social identities and values as a basic determinant of state preferences and, therefore, of interstate conflict and cooperation. According to Moravcsik (1997: 525) social identity is defined as the set of preferences shared by individuals concerning the proper scope and nature of public goods provision, which in turn specifies the nature of legitimate domestic order by stipulating which social actors belong to the polity and what is owed them. Liberals take no distinctive position on the origins of social identities, which may result from historical accretion or be constructed through conscious collective or state action, nor on the question of whether they ultimately...
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