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GENDER ASSESSMENT
USAID/HAITI

June, 2006
This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for
International Development. It was prepared by DevTech Systems, Inc.

GENDER ASSESSMENT FOR USAID/HAITI COUNTRY
STRATEGY STATEMENT

Author: Alexis Gardella

DISCLAIMER
The author’s views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the
United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.

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Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Acknowledgements
Acronyms
Executive Summary

5
6
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1. GENDER DIFFERENTIATED DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS
1.1 Demographics
1.2 Maternal Mortality
1.3 Fertility
1.4 Contraceptive Use
1.5 HIV Infection
1.6 Education
1.7 Economic Growth
1.8 Labor
1.9 Agriculture and Rural Income
1.10 Rural and Urban Poverty
1.11 Environmental Degradation

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10
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2. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF GENDER IN HAITIAN SOCIETY
2.1 Status of Haitian Women
2.2 Haitian Social Structure: Rural
2.2.1 Community Level
2.2.2 Inter-Household Level
2.2.3 Intra-Household relations
2.2.4 Economic Division of Labor
2.3 Economic System
2.4 Urban Society

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3. ONGOING USAID ACTIVITIES IN TERMS OF GENDER FACTORS OR
GENDER-BASED CONSTRAINTS
3.1 Sustainable Increased Income for the Poor (521-001)
3.2 Healthier Families of Desired Size (521-003)
3.3 Increased Human Capacity (521-004)
3.4 Genuinely Inclusive Democratic Governance Attained (521-005)
3.5 Streamlined Government (521-006)
3.6 Tropical Storm Recovery Program (521-010)

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4. CONSIDERATION OF GENDER ISSUES IN DRAFT STRATEGIC
OBJECTIVES
4.1 Rule of Law and Governance
4.1.1 Strengthening of the Justice Sector
4.1.2 Strengthening the Legislative Function
4.1.3 Strengthen Public Sector Executive Function
4.1.4 Support Democratic Local Governance and
Decentralization
4.1.5 Strengthen Civil Society
4.2 Jobs, Livelihoods and the Environment
4.2.1 Support Populations at Risk

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Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

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27
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4.3

4.2.2 Improve Economic Policy and the Business Environment
4.2.3 Improve Private Sector Competitiveness
4.2.4 Protect and Increase the Assets and Livelihoods of the
Poor
4.2.5 Improve Sustainable Management of Natural Resources and Biodiversity Conservation
Basic Social Services
4.3.1 Improve Access to Clean Water and Sanitation
4.3.2 Achieve Equitable Access to Quality Basic Education
4.3.3 Improve Child Survival, Health and Nutrition; Improve
Maternal Health and Nutrition; Support Family Planning

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5. SUMMARY OF GENDER FACTORS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
CONSIDERATION IN THE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF USAID’S
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES

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Summary of Critical Gender Factors

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Recommendations and Issues for USAID Strategic Objectives

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ANNEXES
A. Data Tables
B. Women’s Advocacy Groups in Port-au-Prince
C. Contacts in Port-au-Prince
D. Bibliography
E. Scope of Work

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Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The assessment was carried out at the request of the USAID Mission in Haiti, with support of the USAID Office of Women in Development in Washington. The author wishes to recognize the support of these institutions, and to thank Mission staff, who gave generously of their time to explain Mission programs and concerns. Particular appreciation goes to Karen Poe, who ably managed her visit to Haiti, and Cheryl Anderson for her efficient coordination of Mission comments and responses to requests for additional information. Most importantly, outside
USAID, the author wishes especially to thank Sylvie Bajeux, Jessie Benoît, Lisa François, Marie
Yolène Gilles, Cecile Marotte, Myriam Merlet and Danielle Saint Lôt for their willingness to share their deeply felt concerns and reflections.

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Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

ACRONYMS
CASEC
CEDAW
CIDA
DAP
DCA
EAP
ENFOFANM
FANYOLA
FY
GDP
HAP
HOPE Act
IDB
IRI
LAC
MARP
MCFDF
MOUFHED
NDI
NGO
PADF
UNICEF
UNIFEM
USAID

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Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

Communal Section Administrative Council
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women
Canadian International Development Agency
Title II Food Security agricultural program
Development Credit Authority
Economically Active Population
Organisation de Defense de Droits des Femmes
Collectif Feminin Haitien pour la Participation Politique des Femmes
Fiscal Year
Gross Domestic Product
Hillside Agricultural Program
Haitian Hemispheric Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement
Act
Inter-American Development Bank
International Republican Institute
Latin America and Caribbean region
Most-At-Risk-Persons
Ministry on the Condition of Women and Women’s Rights
Mouvement des Femmes Haitiennes pour l’Education et le
Developpement
National Democratic Institute
Non-Governmental Organization
Pan American Development Foundation
United Nations Children’s Fund
United Nations Development Fund for Women
United States Agency for International Development

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The USAID Mission in Haiti requested that a gender assessment be completed as background for its country strategy for FY 2007 to FY 2009. Through a review of research and program documents, and interviews with USAID staff and partners as well as key individuals representing non-governmental and other donor organizations, the assessment involves an analytic process to identify gender relations and gender-based constraints that may affect or be affected by USAID programs. It includes general factors to be addressed in the Strategy Statement itself, as well as more specific factors to be considered in the preparation of activity-specific documents such as sector analyses, operational plans and activity designs.
According to USAID programming guidelines, gender factors should be an integral part of the design, implementation and evaluation of all USAID activities. Two basic questions about gender are to be considered throughout the programming process:
· The impact of gender relationships on program results; and,
· The impact of the program on the relative status of men and women
Gender is defined as “the economic, social, political and cultural attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female.”1
The Gender Assessment for USAID/Haiti was carried out by Alexis Gardella, a U.S.-based gender consultant, in March 2006, including two-weeks of in-country consultation. Section 1 presents basic development indicators, disaggregated by sex, to measure the relative status of men and women. Section 2 outlines fundamental dimensions of gender in Haiti, in terms of the inter-related roles of men and women, patterns of decision-making and control, and relative legal and social status, and identifies the broad implications of this analysis for development programming. Section 3 presents a gender assessment of the current programs of USAID/Haiti, while Section 4 addresses anticipated future program directions, drawing on the discussion at a
Mission strategic planning workshop in March in Port-au-Prince, attended by the consultant.
Development Indicators
Haiti is the poorest country in the hemisphere and continues in an extended economic decline.
More than half of the 8.6 million people live in rural areas, and three-fourths of the households are classified as poor. Under these conditions, gender has little correlation with poverty, except in the urban areas, which are growing rapidly as a result of internal migration. A high proportion of both men and women participate in the workforce but, on average, women earn less than men. Overall, adult women have less schooling than adult men and are more likely to be illiterate. Population growth, high fertility, and a predominance of young people, as well as an
HIV/AIDS infection rate of more than three percent are additional significant indicators related to gender.
Critical Gender Factors
The overview of gender roles and relations in Haiti draws out key gender factors that are important considerations in all development programs, and should be addressed by the Mission
Strategy Statement. These points include:

1

Development Assistance Committee Guidelines for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Development Cooperation.
OECD: Paris (1998).

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Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

·

·

·

·

Quite apart from questions of equity, any development intervention in Haiti necessitates the consideration of women and an analysis of their role and activities, both in relation to men and as a population base in their own right. Failure to do so ignores, and even further marginalizes, the majority of the population.
Any intervention concerned with human rights, rule of law and the judicial system, governance, or legislative and political processes must address women’s legal status and rights, since women continue to be second-class citizens with unequal representation before the law and the State. Assistance designed to strengthen the institutions in this sector should include a focus on gender discrimination and efforts to eliminate the gender bias as a part of the strengthening process.
Women are marginalized in relation to their male counterparts but at the same time exercise a considerable degree of autonomy and independence in the management of a household’s resources, as well as within the entire national/domestic economy. Haiti’s informal economy is at least 85% of its total economy and women’s activities constitute the majority of this sector. The labor force participation of women nearly equals that of men. Thus, any consideration of economic growth programs in Haiti must integrate the activities of women.
Addressing economic activities that normally fall to women through the household unit or through men, either as heads of households or as members of local groups, automatically eliminates women from decision-making and control. At the same time, focusing on women’s economic activities automatically results in benefits to entire households in terms of nutrition, health, education and general well-being.

Recommendations and Issues for USAID Activities
The analysis of current and anticipated Mission programs identified additional sector-level gender considerations and gender-based constraints to be included in activity design, implementation, and monitoring. The recommendations, in order of priority, for mainstreaming gender in Mission programs are:
·

·
·

·

·

·
·

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Violence against Women. The alarming and brutal increase of violence against women, especially in urban areas, should be considered a priority issue, especially in the initial six months of the upcoming strategy period.
Legal Reform. Primary consideration should be directed to addressing the archaic and discriminatory status of women within the current legal and judicial systems.
Judicial Reform. Discrepancies between the letter of the law and its practice regarding women, and differential treatment of men and women should be prime concerns. Overall Governance. At all levels of government, gender awareness and issues attendant to women’s rights and status, should be integral to all programs of support, assistance and training.
Jobs and Livelihoods. Job creation and livelihood improvement programs should focus on women’s activities in order to have maximum impact on the entire society and economy. Women’s Groups. USAID’s support and assistance should interface at national and local levels with women’s groups already addressing the issues discussed.
Program Synergy. Both within USAID and across the donor community, program synergies should be sought to maximize assistance impact.

Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

1.

Gender Differentiated Development Indicators

As the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, Haiti’s population is more than 60 percent below the poverty line, malnutrition affects about half of the children under the age of five and less than half the population has access to safe water. Nearly half of the adult population is illiterate and only 56 percent of primary school age children are enrolled in school. Expectedly,
Haiti also evidences some of the worst gender-related indicators in the hemisphere.
1.1.
Demographics
Haiti’s total population in 2004 was about 8.6 million, with 59.6 percent living in rural areas and
40.4 percent living in urban areas; in 1982, these percentages were about 75 percent and 25 percent, respectively.2 Growing at nearly two percent per annum, Haiti’s population will reach nearly 12.8 million people in just 20 years – of which nearly 3.5 million will be youth between the ages of 10 and 24 years old. Continued rapid population growth further erodes the government’s ability to provide basic services, and ensure stability and prosperity for its citizens.
Life expectancy at birth is the lowest in the Latin America and Caribbean region (LAC) region at
51 years for males and 54 years for females.3
1.2
Maternal Mortality
Of every 100,000 live births in Haiti (2000), 523 women die in child birth. The principal direct causes of maternal deaths in Haiti are eclampsia (31 percent), hemorrhage (22 percent), infections (20 percent), gynecological disorders (11 percent) and other complications from an infection or neurological condition (16 percent). These high rates are seen as related to clandestine unsafe abortions, and the failings of the national health care system, including the inadequate and in many areas, non-existent prenatal and natal care. 4
Only nine percent of pregnant rural women and 31 percent of urban women give birth in hospitals (1998 data). Paralleling and filling the void of the formal health care system is a rich traditional health sector, consisting of vodun priests, herbalists and midwives, who traditionally care for pregnancy or delivery related complications and birth.5
1.3
Fertility
The overall fertility level is 4.7 children per woman. It is higher in rural than in urban areas, and lowest in Port-au-Prince. Fifteen percent of Haitian women are married between the ages of 15 and 19, and a third of the women have given birth by age 20. Further, 70 percent of women have birth intervals shorter than three years.
1.4
Contraceptive Use
Modern contraceptive use in Haiti is the lowest in the LAC region. While use of modern methods of contraception is around 22 percent among married women (2000), there is a large unmet need for family planning, particularly among younger women. Anecdotal information suggests that while knowledge of contraceptive methods is high, there is a gap in women acting on this knowledge. It is suspected that the lack of empowerment for women to control their
2

Dorte Verner, Making the Poor Haitians Count Takes More Than Counting the Poor: A Poverty and Labor Market Assessment of Rural and
Urban Haiti based on the First Household Survey for Haiti, (World Bank, April 2005), 8.
3
Population Reference Bureau, PRB Country Profiles, http://www.prb.org/TemplateTop.cfm?Section=PRB_Country_Profiles&template=/customsource/countryprofile/countryprofiledisplay .cfm&Country=362.
4
World Health Organization, The World Health Report 1998. Life in the Twenty-first Century: A Vision for All (Geneva: WHO, 1998).
5
World Bank Report No. 21866-LAC, A Review of Gender Issues in the Dominican Republic, Haiti and Jamaica (Caribbean Country
Management Unit, Gender Group, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit, Latin America and the Caribbean Region,
December 2002).

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Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

fertility is the major factor in explaining this anomaly. The unmet need for family planning among women ages 15 to 49 is approximately 40 percent. Contraceptive use varies between rural and urban areas and by type of union. A 1998 study showed that for both men and women, contraceptive use was higher for those not currently in a union.6 A 1994 study indicated that half of the adolescents attending a large clinic in Port-au-Prince reported having had one or more abortions.7 More recent data offers some encouragement. Population Services
International (PSI) reports increasing use of condoms, as evidenced by the increase from 10 million sold in 2000 to 14 million sold in 2002.8
1.5
HIV Infection
In 1997, UNAIDS estimated that 5.2 percent of the general population between the ages of 15 and 49 had been infected with HIV/AIDS.9 Figures for 2001 showed a rate of 6.1 percent for adults in the same age group.10 More recent figures for 2004 show that the rate for the general population has dropped to 3.11 percent, with 3.37 percent for urban areas and 2.87 percent for rural areas.11 This success is one of the few positive indicators for Haiti. At the same time, while the rate of infection has dropped for the general population, there is increasing concern of concentrated epidemics among the most at risk persons (MARPs). More alarming is the feminization of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, which, in most affected countries, shows a gender gap whereby young women are being infected at twice the rate of their male counterparts. Data in other countries suggests that this emerging phenomenon is a reflection of women’s historically low status and their inability to negotiate safe sex and consistent condom use, and of conditions of poverty that lead to high levels of transactional and commercial sex by young women.
1.6
Education
Illiteracy levels in Haiti are the highest in the LAC Region for both men and women, but are higher for women than men; in 2000 these stood at 33.4 percent for men and 43.3 percent for women.12 More recent data show that among women ages 15 to 49, 35 percent are illiterate, compared to 21 percent of men in this age group.
Enrollment rates for primary education are only 56 percent, and much lower in rural than in urban areas. A similar proportion of girls and boys age 6 to10 are enrolled in school, with a greater proportion of girls enrolled in rural areas and the reverse in urban areas. The gap favoring girls increases in the 11 to15 age group, particularly in urban areas, but among 16 to20 year olds a significantly greater proportion of boys than of girls are enrolled. Available information indicates that parents in Haiti show no gender preference for sending their children to school, but rather base that decision on economic means, economic contribution to the household of the child, and aptitude.13
1.7
Economic Growth14
Real income or Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Haiti has decreased at an average annual rate of -0.82 per cent between 1980 and 2003; in 2003 the GDP stood at around US$2.8 billion. Per capita GDP fell from $632 in 1980 to $332 in 2003. Between 1996 and 2002, the share of agriculture in total GDP fell while the share of services and industry increased. In 2002,
6

WHO, The World Health Report.
I. Guest, “Haiti Beyond the Headlines,” Populi (1994).
8
SIECUS PEPFAR Country Profiles, www.siecus.org.
9
WB Report No. 21866
10
“Population, Health and Human Well-being – Haiti, 2003,” EarthTrends Country Profiles, www.earthtrends.wri.org
11
POLICY Project, MSPP-UCC, “Le VIH/SIDA en Haiti: Une Raison d’Espérer” (December 2004).
12
Verner, Making the Poor Haitians Count, 24.
13
WB Report No. 21866, page 47.
14
Verner, Making the Poor Haitians Count, 11-12.
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10 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

agriculture contributed 27.1 percent of GDP (down from 32.9 percent in 1996), industry was at
16.3 percent (15.4 percent in 1996) and services at 56.5 percent (51.7 percent in 1996).
1.8
Labor
The Haitian economy has a very high labor force participation rate for both sexes and has a higher proportion of economically active women than any other developing society in the world, with the exception of Lesotho.15 In 1995, the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) estimated male and female participation rates to be 87 percent and 62 percent, respectively; from 1981 to 1999, the female proportion of the economically active population increased from
40 to 48 percent, whereas the male proportion decreased from 60 to 52 percent.
Economically Active Population (10+ years) by Sector and Sex, 1999
Total
Male %
Female %
% of sector female Agriculture
44.5
53.6
34.5
37.1
Industry and Manufacturing
12.9
18.3
7.0
25.9
Commerce, petty trade and
25.7
9.0
43.9
81.7
Restaurants
Services
17.0
19.1
14.6
41.2
Total
100
100
100
47.8
Source: Charmes (2000) in WB Report No. 21866-LAC
Gender disaggregated data on wages are scanty; however, available information suggests that gender wage differentials persist. A 1993 UNICEF study found that a greater proportion of working women than men were in the lowest revenue level, in both the formal and informal sectors. About 83 percent of formal sector female workers were in the lowest income level, compared to 44 percent of men.16
1.9
Agriculture and Rural Income
Haiti’s agricultural sector has long been stagnating. The sector contributes only 27.1 percent of
GDP and has been declining steadily since the 1980s. The sector’s share in exports declined from about 50 percent in 1980 to less than 10 percent in 1998. Although agriculture only contributes 27.1 percent of GDP, it accounts for around 50 percent of employment, while industry only accounts for 10 percent of jobs.17
1.10 Rural and Urban Poverty
In 2004, the poverty headcount for “extremely poor” (one dollar or less per day per person) was at 56 percent, and for “poor” (two dollars or less per day per person), 76 percent. Extreme poverty in Haiti is primarily a rural phenomenon; 77 percent of the extremely poor live in rural areas. Rural poverty contrasts sharply with the Port-au-Prince metropolitan area, while other urban areas are similar to the surrounding rural countryside. The percentage of people living in extreme poverty in Port-au-Prince is 23 percent, for other urban areas it is 57 percent, and for rural areas, it is 67 percent.18
On average, 28 percent of rural households are headed by women and 72 percent are headed by men, but four times as many male-headed households face extreme food insecurity as female15

WB Report No. 21866.
UNICEF, Germaine Chercher la Vie (Port-au-prince, 1993).
17
Verner, Making the Poor Haitians Count, 12-13.
18
Pal Sletten and Willy Egset, “Poverty in Haiti”, (Fafo-paper, 2004) 10-11.
16

11 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

headed households (2001 data). One analyst suggests that since women have been traditionally engaged in food production, female-headed households may be likely to direct their energies towards maintaining food security at the expense of other income generating activities.19 On the other hand, women also have more access than men to petty commerce, and therefore to cash for food purchase. Sletten and Egset (2004) do not find important gender differences in the overall distribution of poverty; the differences between female- and male-headed households are smaller than differences between other groups. In fact, this recent data shows clearly that poverty in rural areas is not explained by household characteristics, but rather by geographical characteristics.20 The geographical distribution of poverty indicates that the highest poverty headcount index is 84 percent in the Northeast department, and the second highest, is 72 percent for the Northwest; the lowest is 34 percent in the Department of the West.21
Finally to note, rural poverty is not caused by landlessness: about 80 percent of rural households have access to land and 70 percent cultivate land.22 Likewise, poverty is not created in the market for wage labor, as in other LAC countries. In Haiti, evidence on rural poverty suggests, in fact, that the rural labor market is primarily a mechanism for escaping poverty, not for creating it.23
In Port-au-Prince, gender differences in the distribution of poverty do exist. Fully 26 percent of female-headed households in the capital city are extremely poor, against 17 percent of maleheaded households.24 Further, the main difference between non-poor and poor is that the nonpoor obtain higher proportions of their income as wages – 30 percent against 14 percent of the income of the extremely poor. It is also worth noting that the Sletten and Egset study finds that transfers make up 25 percent of aggregate household income in Haiti, of which nearly threequarters are external transfers from the Haitian diaspora. Poverty rates are lower among those who have relatives abroad, with an even stronger difference between those who receive external transfers and those who do not. The data further shows that neither internal nor external transfers target the most destitute.
1.11 Environmental Degradation
Over time, the environment in Haiti has been degraded by agricultural and other livelihood practices that, for example, cause erosion and impact water quality. All indications are that the dynamic is both complex (i.e., due to a variety of factors), and accelerating. While extensive documentation is available on the damaging practices and their effects, very little attention has been given to the use of these practices in terms of gender, and the potential effect of gender on environmental impacts. At the same time, impacts in terms of diminishing supplies of potable water and fuel wood are disproportionately felt by women.

19

WB Report No. 21866, 49.
This conclusion is the exact opposite of Verner’s (p.47) who states: “Living in rural areas in Haiti does not by itself affect the probability of being poor. Hence, individual and household characteristics are more important than geographical location.” In addition, Verner states that “female-headed households in rural areas are 9 percent more likely to be poor than female heads in the rest of Haiti.” (ibid.) It should be noted that Verner’s data predates Sletten and Egset’s data.
21
Sletten and Egset, “Poverty in Haiti”, 12.
22
Ibid., but note that Verner, using HLCS 2001data, reports that 78 percent of farmers own 2 hectares or less, 19 percent own 2-7 hectares and 4 percent own 7 or more hectares and that income poverty among household heads with 0.5 hectares of land or less reached 64.8 percent and 46.8 percent of those with 6-10 hectares of land. Verner is reporting on land ownership – not access to land – and thus not taking into account the myriad modes of tenure and sharecropping which provide access to land.
23
Sletten and Egset, “Poverty in Haiti”, 19-21.
24
Ibid., 12.
20

12 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

2.

General Overview of Gender in Haitian Society

Haiti, in any of its dimensions, simply cannot be considered without recognition of the role and significance of women and their activities. Consider that:
a) The population is more than half women;
b) Haiti has a higher proportion of economically active women than any other society in the world, with the exception of Lesotho, with 62 percent of women working. From
1981 to 1999, the female proportion of economically active population (EAP) increased from 40 to 48 percent, while men’s EAP decreased from 60 to 52 percent.25
c) Women represent more than half the electorate;
d) The poorer the household, the more dependent it is on female revenue streams into the household, whether headed by a man or a woman.
e) Haiti’s economy is approximately 85 percent in the informal sector, and within the informal sector more than 75 percent of those participating are women.
Implications: Quite apart from questions of equity, any development intervention necessitates the consideration of women and an analysis of their role and activities, both in relation to men and as a population base in their own right. Failure to do so risks ignoring, even marginalizing, a major sector of the country, and can compromise achievement of overall program objectives.
2.1
Status of Haitian Women
At the same time, Haitian women are the most disenfranchised and marginalized portion of the population, as evidenced by:
a) Haiti’s courts function day-to-day using codes dating from the 19th century Napoleonic
Code;26
b) Although Haiti ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention,
Punishment and Eradication of Violence Against Women in 1981 and 1986, respectively, these conventions have had little practical or even formal significance.27
c) In 1982, Haiti established a landmark decree that makes women equal to men, particularly within marriage. However, different penalties for breaches of law continue to be applied, even though they may contradict this decree, the 1987 Haitian
Constitution, and the conventions cited above.28
d) Changes to some particularly egregious elements of the code, which illustrate the pervasiveness of discrimination against women, were achieved in mid-2005; however, until that time it was the law that:29
i) adultery was classified as a second-level crime and women who were caught were punished with three months to two years imprisonment, while men paid only a fine; ii) murder committed by a husband who discovered his wife and her lover in flagrante delicto could be excused by a judge and, in any event, punished by nor more than two years in prison; iii) rape was never actually defined in the law but was classified among crimes against morals; courts attributed less importance to the rape of a woman who was not a virgin, on the pretext that her honor was not at issue; medical certificates, which were very difficult to obtain, were required to prove rape;
25

WB Report No. 21866-LAC.
Anne Fuller, “Challenging Violence: Haitian Women Unite Women’s Rights and Human Rights,” Association of Concerned Africa
Scholars, Special Bulletin on Women and War (Spring/Summer 1999).
27
WB Report No. 21866-LAC, 36-37.
28
Fuller, “Challenging Violence”.
29
Ibid.
26

13 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

iv) Abortion was illegal under all circumstances, even for therapeutic purposes and was punishable by three to nine years in prison; girls and young women were usually dismissed from school and domestic workers from their jobs if they became pregnant; however, prosecutions for abortion were very rare;
v) Violence was punished by laws against assault and battery, according to the circumstances of the attack and the degree of injury to the victim. Assault on a parent or adoptive parent was singled out for additional penalties, but no special mention was made of assault by men on women. Domestic abuse has traditionally been seen as an internal family matter and not penalized. vi) The rights of women in common-law marriage (plaçage) were not recognized, although only a minority of unions is legally sanctioned.
e) However, there is an indication that these archaic statutes are beginning to change. On
July 6, 2005, the Council of Ministers adopted several legal decrees in a first attempt at removing certain sexist biases in the Haitian penal code. Namely:
i) Article 278: rape is defined as sexual aggression. A person who is guilty of attempting or committing sexual aggression through violence, threat, or psychological pressure against a person of any gender will be punished with 10 years of hard labor. ii) Article 279; if a crime is committed against a child under the age of 15, the person responsible will be punished with 15 years of hard labor;30 iii) Article 280; the punishment will be hard labor for life if the responsible parties are in positions of authority over the victim, or if they abuse the authority attending their function, or if those responsible, whoever they may be, were assisted in their crime by one or more other persons or if death followed from the crime;31 iv) The previous dispositions against women in the case of adultery were simply abrogated based on the conclusion that adultery is a violation against marital obligations, a private affair that does not concern the penal code.32
f) Although there is always a great distance between the letter and the practice of the law, there are also indications that the Haitian courts will begin to apply these changes systematically. On the 22nd of March, 2006, two men were convicted of the 2005 rape of a woman and her 16 year-old daughter (who was found dead four months later), and were sentenced to forced hard labor for life. On the other hand, the two convicted men were part of a group of five who were found to have violated and sodomized the two victims in February 2005, and the tribunal did not pronounce any sentence whatsoever relative to the other three.33
Implications:
· Any intervention concerned with human rights must first and foremost address women’s rights in consideration that they remain second-class citizens with unequal representation before the law and the State.
· Any intervention concerned with rule of law and the judicial system, governance, legislative strengthening and political processes necessitates addressing the status of women, again, at risk of ignoring and continuing the marginalization of women.
· Assistance designed to strengthen the institutions in this sector should include a focus on gender discrimination and efforts to eliminate the gender bias as a part of the strengthening process.
30

Haïti: la loi du côté des femmes (Haiti Press Network, July 16 2005).
Ibid.
32
Ibid.
33
Haïti – Femmes: Peine de reclusion à perpétuité pour 2 violeurs (Mercredi : AlterPresse, March 22 2006).
31

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USAID/Haiti

2.2

Haitian Social Structure: Rural

2.2.1 Community Level
(i) Rural areas are characterized by dispersed, non-nucleated settlement, except along roadsides and towns associated with markets;
(ii) The domestic market circuits radiate out from Port-au-Prince to the smallest markets and then circle back again to Port-au-Prince. Markets have several levels, from the national one in Port-au-Prince, which is daily, to those that are twice weekly, down to small weekly ones in remote areas;
(iii) The local government structure goes from the Départements, to the Municipalities down to the smallest de facto unit, the habitation, which is essentially a loosely organized rural neighborhood. (iv) Haitian society is extremely stratified and works essentially on a system of patronage from one level to the next, from the poorest households up to major political and economic actors. For the most part, one can consider these vertical relations as part of one system that melds both economic and political bases. While this system can be of benefit to those in lower socioeconomic strata as a means of benefit and access to otherwise unavailable opportunities, it remains, in essence, a system of exclusion to the detriment of those not already in positions of economic or political power, and a serious constraint to social, legal and economic equity.
Implications:
· (For non-governance activities) Interventions based on geo-political units, whether public or private, will automatically engage the patron – client system already in place.
· In general, interventions should be focused on specific activities or specific already established associations or directly on households in order to circumvent the patronage system and the ramifications of that for corruption, inequity, and the marginalization of certain groups, and to avoid politicization of activities on the ground.
2.2.2 Inter-Household Level
(i) Traditionally, related households are organized around family compounds/land, with common residential and burial sites among usually patrilineally related men; productive land was not, and is not, held in common, although reciprocal work groups among extended family are common. Note that this traditional system has been considerably disrupted by emigration and land fragmentation;
(ii) Inheritance of land and houses is bilateral, and equal among heirs except that women receive smaller shares; children inherit equally and separately from their mother and father, regardless of whether the two are in some kind of union;
(iii) Because land-holding is individual and strategically dispersed, reciprocal work groups, eskwad, are usually organized around contiguous plots, although relationships through kinship or neighborhood ties do occur, especially in the case of the formation of groupements for project purposes;34
(iv) Religious ceremonies (sevis lwa or vodun), marriages, and funerals are the nodes of interaction among related households;

34

Brent M. Swallow, Ruth S. Meinzen-Dick, Lee Ann Jackson, Timothy O. Williams, and T. Anderson White, “Multiple Functions of
Common Property Regimes,” EPTD Workshop Summary Paper No.5, Environment and Production Technology Division of the
International Food Policy Research Institute and the CGIAR System-Wide Program on Property Rights and Collective Action, Panel presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property 6th Annual Conference, June 7, 1997.

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(v) Apart from the immediate and extended family, the only forms of social capital in traditional social groupings are, for men, in the eskwad, and for women, in the pratik market relationship.
Implications:
· Engagement with a local population should not be in relation to a neighborhood or physical proximity.
· In as much as interventions depend on genuine participation by partners and/or beneficiaries, social capital cannot be assumed beyond already established and functioning groups as in the case of eskwads, but also in the case of local organizations which already exist and which have successfully managed or sponsored specific activities.
· As participation depends on collective interaction, activities should be formed and organized around a group’s felt needs, and where mutual benefits within the group exceed individual benefits, the participants must have a material stake in the enterprise.
2.2.3 Intra-Household relations
(i) A typical household is structured around a man, a woman, and children. The household emerges when a man and a woman establish a union, either plaçage or formal marriage, and produce children (cf. Table 1, Annex A for general parameters).
(ii) Men do have more than one union, as many as the individual can afford, but women are expected to be (serially) monogamous;
(iii) Other forms of union, such as vivavek, visiting relationships, do not establish conjugal relationships, except when children are produced, which in turn entails an economic relationship. (iv) Traditionally, men “make gardens” for their spouses. This entails that agricultural production is received by the woman and traded in the marketplace for other essentials not produced by the household or manufactured, and constitutes the source of income with which the woman feeds and cares for her children. Produce from the garden and revenue from other marketing remain under the control of the woman. Being a
“housewife” includes this marketing responsibility and young girls learn it from an early age. From the household level up to the national level, the domestic market moves through women. A woman’s success, to proceed from a simple marchande to a Madamn
Sara (wholesaler), depends on her access to capital and her marketing savvy. The true indigenous capitalists in Haitian society are women and their Creole terms/concepts revisit all the basic concepts in elementary economics. In the marketplace, women establish pratik dyadic relationships among themselves, which confer mutual market benefits. (cf. Table 2, Annex A for general parameters in the rural population)
(v) Men control their own revenue, usually from export crop production, large livestock, wage labor, etc. from which they may or may not make gifts to their various spouses
(i.e., mothers of their children).
2.2.4 Economic: Division of Labor
(i) Men are primarily responsible for: (also refer to Table 3 and 4, Annex A)
· heavy agricultural work: clearing lands, tilling, and harvesting;
· care of large livestock, cattle, horses, mules
· cultivation and marketing of export crops
· agricultural wage labor, either individually or through an eskwad;
· fishing;
· certain kinds of craft production;
· migratory labor.
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(ii) Women are primarily responsible for: (also refer to Table 3 and 4, Annex A)
· in agricultural production: seeding/planting, weeding, harvesting and bulking for market; · care of small livestock: pigs, goats, poultry, donkeys
· sale of agricultural produce in the domestic marketing circuits;
· purchase of household essentials with marketing revenues;
· cooking, cleaning, laundry;
· care of children, including educational and medical needs;
· fetching water.
(iii) Children assist their parents in all of these activities, by gender.
· Both boys and girls are equally expected to attend school, but schooling is dropped in favor of economic resources. If a girl contributes more to the household than her brother, she will leave school and he will not. Decreasing rates of girls’ attendance at the secondary level and higher are primarily a function of their economic importance in the household or responsibility for their own children.
Implications:
· Women are marginalized in relation to their male counterparts but at the same time exercise a considerable degree of autonomy and independence in the management of a household’s resources. What is of note here is that women maintain a subservient demeanor in the presence of men, but in women-only groups they are as engaged, active and vociferous as men, as is quite apparent in market places, around laundry and water sites, and in other places where women congregate. Women also evidence submissive behavior in the presence of both men and women of a higher class or from urban areas.35 · A genuine and productive relationship with women and women’s groups requires a majority presence of women; some advocacy groups place a limit of no more than 10 percent men present for their meetings and activities.
· Women’s access to a man’s resources is through bearing a child for him; at the same time, men are expected to care for their children. Thus children are crucial in the relationship between the genders.
· Addressing economic activities that fall within the domain of women through the household or through men, either as heads of households or as members of local groups, automatically eliminates women from decision-making and control. An example of a common mistake is the use of male farmer distribution systems in the provision of agricultural inputs, especially improved seed varieties, as it is women who are responsible for the provision of seeds. Given that more than 90 percent of Haitian farmers have no access to inputs such as pesticides and even less so for fertilizers of all kinds,36 exploration of distribution methods through women and the local markets could be a promising approach. Similarly, given that women are responsible for small livestock, it would be a matter of common sense to address women where use of livestock manure was in play.

35

While this may appear to be a categorical statement, it is based on the author’s field experience of 20 years in Haiti, and has been and can be confirmed by any person, Haitian or foreign, who has worked with both mixed and women only groups. Clearly, in instances which include middle or upper class women, or with women who have some degree of higher education, deferential behavior would not be so evident or as expected.
36
For the poorest farmers, those in the lowest 4 quintiles, no pesticide or insecticide is used by 89% or more, while among the richest farmers 87% do not use pesticides or insecticides; among the poorest farmers no fertilizers of any kind are used by 92%, and among the richest, more than 64% do not use fertilizers. (Verner, 62).

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2.3
·
·

·

·

Economic System
Eighty-five percent of all economic activity is in the informal sector; 15 percent is in the formal sector.
In general, the export-import sector falls within the formal economy. The export market is based on a separate circuit of exchange than the domestic market. Export goods production and exchange of export goods in the agricultural sector (coffee, cocoa, sisal, and in the past essential oils) is almost exclusively a male domain. Each link, from garden to spekilate to processors and the large coffee or other export commodity export houses, is through a male agent in a patronage system (which entails relations of credit and debt, and liens on standing crops). At the same time, coffee, for example, destined to the domestic market moves through the normal marketing exchanges peopled by female komersan. Also worth noting, rural producers of these export crops tend to be among the better off farmers, with sufficient land or production to not concentrate on the immediate returns, or on the higher prices for other commodities of the domestic market.
The domestic market is almost entirely run through female komersan, as mentioned above, from the smallest corner, to the local and regional markets, finally to the big market in Port-au-Prince, and back down again. Relations within these nesting markets tend to be individual-to-individual in a series of relationships that are called pratik.
Contrary to the hierarchical relations inherent in the patronage system, pratik relations are business relations and concern mutual benefits in the exchange of various goods, e.g. price guarantees, certain kinds of credit, price discounts, exclusivity, and so on. As with any good business relationship, pratik implies reciprocity and a certain degree of solidarity, loyalty and honesty among these women.
One of the most persistent and damaging perceptions about the Haitian peasants is that they are subsistence producers, selling their surplus on the market. In fact, Haitian farmers produce for exchange. They produce and market those crops with the highest profits, and purchase the lowest priced food items to consume at home – through women. It is only the most affluent farmers who can produce for consumption and sell their surplus on the market.37 It should be immediately evident that agricultural production interventions should be defined in relation to this fact. To do otherwise both skews benefits and risks failure.

Implications:
· The impoverishment of the Haitian population is essentially a process of decapitalization, where, in a downward spiral, assets must be sold simply to ensure survival. In the traditional system, the primary stores of capital, in ascending order, are commercial capital (in the form of agricultural production), small livestock, large livestock, productive trees and land. To reverse the process of impoverishment, recapitalization in some form must occur within this basic system.
· Focusing on export crop production ipso facto excludes women unless they are themselves large landowners, which is rare.
· Focusing on women’s economic activities automatically results in benefits to entire households in terms of nutrition, health, education and general well-being.
· One of the easiest ways to address de-capitalization is through micro-financing, which has been done on a large scale for 15 years. However, it is not evident that loan
37

Note this statement: “Surprisingly, while wages as a percentage of income fall with income, the importance of self-produced food increases.” Within Haiti this is not in the least “surprising” or unexpected and has been the case for the majority of producers since at least the 1960s. (WB Report No. 17242, 3).

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conditions (amount, interest rates and length of loan) are meeting either the needs of the poorest or contributing to re-capitalization. Some women are not good capitalists; some loan conditions result in women having to sell assets just to meet repayment deadlines; and some loan amounts and interest rates have limited use given the cycle and timing of market exchange these households participate in.

2.4
·

·
·

·

·
·
·
·

·

Urban Society
The majority of poor urban areas are the result of internal migration. Income transfers between rural and urban residents can go in either direction. Currently, and in the immediate post-coup period (1991-1993), many urban families have returned to their rural bases because of security conditions.
Neighborhood relations in the city tend to be transitory.
A key strategic factor in urban neighborhoods is access to water — in as much as this can be a point of engagement with the local population, it is also a means of control and exploitation. Urban employment opportunities are meager and imply a break from traditional revenue streams, but over all, urban households are better off than rural ones (Cf.
Development Indicators, section 1.10, Urban and Rural Poverty).
On average, the urban population is younger than the rural population.
Poor urban areas tend to be characterized by a significant number of dysfunctional households, and the problem of street children and orphans.
There are no traditional hierarchies of authority, no practical police or governmental authority, except coercion and force, and consequently little social capital in these areas.
The productive base is missing, as well as customary social relations, which in turn, has perverted the relationship between genders. Prostitution and pimping are telling symptoms. Although found all over Haiti, in poor urban areas there is a greater preponderance of households, either male- or female-headed, where each child has a different father. This situation clearly creates sexual jealousy and differential resources for each person within the unit.38

Gangs
In urban areas, the gangs can be seen as part of a developmental cycle that began with
Duvalier’s Tonton Macoutes and then evolved into the sans-maman-yo and zengledo of the coup period (1991-1994), especially in relation to the FRAPH (Front revolutionaire pour l’avancement et le progress d’Haiti). (It is worth noting that with the dechoukaj of the 1980s, the populace’s main targets were Macoutes.) By 1991, these groups included large numbers of former Macoutes, although many upper level Macoutes were recruited directly into the military and later the police. During the coup period, these groups were the primary means of repression directed toward popular organizations (who at that time were the primary supporters of Aristide) in both the countryside and the city.
It was with Aristide that these groups began to take on their directly political cast. Before his departure in 1991, Aristide used and recruited urban groups – mainly young, mainly men
– under the guise of popular organizations, to create pressure on society as a whole through
38

As in most accepted characteristics of urban society in Haiti, information is largely based on anecdotal information and personal experiences. To the author’s knowledge, there has not been an urban study of any consequence since Simon Fass’ Political Economy in Haiti: The Drama of Survival, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick and London, 1990. Research on contemporary urban society in Haiti is urgently needed and should be supported wherever possible.

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demonstrations, blockades and tire burnings. Upon his return, it is almost universally perceived that Aristide began to arm these groups and use them for his own political ends.
The influx of arms during this period was enormous and continues today. Those same groups began to take on a certain autonomy by participating in the drug trade. They became less dependent on the patronage of the political parties, to the point where now they are a force of their own. This does not belie the fact that gang formation and the focus of their activities are opportunistic. (This process is paralleled by the Military, which had always been dependent on the elite bourgeoisie and the State for support, and thus under their control, until the 1991 coup period. At that time, they began to participate in the drug trade – which in turn provided them with an independent financial base and a new autonomy, before their dissolution under Aristide.)
It is worth noting that in Jamaica, gang violence dates back to the late 1960s when individual politicians within Jamaica’s political parties created unofficial armed militias to control poor neighborhoods. These groups eventually became economically independent through drug trafficking and today form a loose mafia that operates within Jamaica and internationally.39
Implications:
· Provision of basic services, like water, and job creation should be prime objectives for the urban sector. And, given that disorder in the urban sector has repercussions on all aspects of Haitian society, from markets and economic activities, to political dialogue, programs targeted to urban areas should have priority.
· At the same time, there are no credible or in-depth studies of poor urban society, and few credible community or local organizations of any kind. Sociological research is urgently needed within these communities to correctly target programs and services and create the means necessary to engage this population.
· The rise of armed violence, and the negative repercussions for all of society, is of gravest concern. While not strictly in the purview of USAID, little can be done until effective police are mobilized and serious disarmament measures taken.
3.

Ongoing USAID Activities in Terms of Gender Factors or Gender-Based
Constraints*

3.1
Sustainable Increased Income for the Poor (521-001)
The performance goals for this activity focus on institutions, laws, and policies that foster private sector-led growth, macroeconomic stability and poverty reduction. They include:
· Expand and improve access to economic and social infrastructure through the Hillside
Agricultural Program (HAP), the Pan American Development Foundation (PADF) activities in urban sanitation in the volatile slums of Port-au-Prince, and the Haitian
Environmental Foundation (HEF) recycling and drainage canal cleaning in Pétionville and
Cité Soleil, which also generates short-term employment.
· Improve private sector competitiveness through Aid to Artisans, focusing on providing income opportunities through handicraft production, developing new clients for artisans,

39

WB Report No. 21866, 70.
This section is based on the USAID/Haiti, Annual Report, FY 2006 (January 27, 2006), the accompanying Congressional Budget
Justification, and interviews with USAID personnel. Limited time prevented interviewing key personnel among partners or reviewing reports and evaluations covering the various activities. Throughout this section there is a presumption of the existence of sexdisaggregated data and incorporation of gender factors (based on the recommendations of the 1998 Gender Analysis of
USAID/Haiti’s Strategic Objectives), although this information was not verified separately.
*

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·
·

·

locally and internationally, and providing shipping incentives and facilitating buyers’ visits to Haiti.
Improve sustainable management of natural resources and biodiversity through the Title
II Food Security (DAP) Agricultural Program and the HAP.
Increase agricultural sector productivity, through the HAP, focused on two major export crops, mango and coffee; assistance for non-traditional export crops, viz. pumpkins, hot peppers and yams (although dropped due to budget cuts, but planned for re-inclusion in FY2006); a planned reforestation assessment; and the PL 480 Title II food-assisted Development Activity Program (DAP) agricultural and natural resource management component.
Strengthen the financial services sector and increase access to capital through the development of viable, self-sustaining credit systems for micro-entrepreneurs through the Development Credit Authority (DCA) loan guarantee program, initiating lending to such productive sectors as agribusiness, communications, construction and microbusinesses.

Gender Considerations
Gender factors are not specifically mentioned within this performance goal in the Annual
Report. One can safely assume,40 however, that job creation activities at least tabulated the number of women employed as members of “underserved and marginal populations.” In addition, women’s activities can be seen to have been positively affected by sanitation and infrastructure improvements, and resource management practices, given their responsibilities within the household and their use of infrastructure for marketing of agricultural produce. On the other hand, it can also be safely assumed that the bulk of the jobs created by these kinds of activities are held by men since these jobs primarily involve heavy labor and are not considered to be appropriate for women.
The “improving private sector competitiveness” activity, viz. the Aid to Artisans handicraft production project, would appear to have increased income opportunities for women to the extent that crafts traditionally produced by women have been included.
Focusing on export crops, as in the coffee activity, implies the exclusion of women, except in the unlikely situation where women are heads of households holding lands appropriate to coffee production. The mango export program may be integrating women to the extent that it collects mangos already being produced on individual plots, in contrast to those produced on monocrop plantations. In the domestic economy, mangos are marketed by women, but whether this already existing system has been integrated into the project is unclear. The same observations apply to the non-traditional export crops activities: women’s participation depends on the actual collection and delivery mechanisms being used by these would-be exporters. With respect to the Title II DAPs, there is the same presumption that gender disaggregated figures are being collected from their beneficiaries. However, greater rates of female participation are possible given the focus on agricultural inputs and bio-intensive gardening to the extent that project implementers are respecting the traditional division of labor in rural households. Certainly the higher incomes reported for families growing vegetables for market should implicate women. Further data on this aspect of their activities would be instructive.
It would be surprising if assistance to micro-finance institutions was not positively impacting women in general, given women’s preponderance in the informal commercial sector. If gender
40

Based on the recommendations made in the January 1998 Gender Analysis of USAID/Haiti’s Strategic Objectives, in which genderdisaggregated data collection is recommended throughout Mission project activities.

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disaggregated data is not already being collected, it should be. Micro-financing is one of the simplest and most effective mechanisms for improving the economic status of women and their households, and can, if designed properly, go far to restore the asset base of many households.
Furthermore, given the exponential increase in micro-credit programs and financial institutions’ investments in this sector in the last 15 years, one would expect to see concrete improvements in the economic well-being of customers’ households. An assessment of this whole sector and the quality of its outreach to poorer households, urban and rural, should be undertaken prior to continuing and expanding assistance. Uniformly positive results should not be taken for granted: anecdotal information indicates that for poorer households, high interest rates, short loan terms, and low business acumen of certain clients may lead to the sale of household assets simply to repay loans, and thus increase poverty rather than alleviate it.
3.2
Healthier Families of Desired Size (521-003)
The performance goals for these activities targeted improved global health, including child, maternal and reproductive health and the reduction of abortion and disease, especially
HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis. These activities centered on:
· Improved Access to Clean Water and Sanitation
· Improved Child Survival, Health and Nutrition, through Title II food security interventions, immunization, Vitamin A supplements, de-worming, food fortification, and national promotion of breastfeeding.
· Improved Maternal Health and Nutrition through provision of a minimum package of integrated maternal/child health services, the renovation and equipping of maternity wards, infection prevention improvements and waste management, and training of more than 1000 traditional birth attendants.
· The Prevention and Control of Infectious Diseases of Major Importance. Together with the Ministry of Health, other Haitian government departments and other partners,
USAID has been targeting preventive measures for the endemic transmission of falciparum malaria, the most lethal form, and tuberculosis, and the establishment of a working group on avian flu.
· The Provision of Emergency Assistance to two health centers to restart basic services in slum areas of Port-au-Prince.
· The Reduction of Transmission and Impact of HIV/AIDS.
· Support of Democratic Local Government and Decentralization, by the strengthening of decentralized management and leadership capacity within the Ministry of Health’s
Departmental Directorates to improve their oversight and coordination of health activities. · Support of Family Planning, by improving counseling, information, education, and mass media and interpersonal communication campaigns, as well as the quality of service in the Ministry of Health; collaboration with the Ministry and other donors to establish more dynamic commodity distribution systems to ensure supplies of contraceptives, vaccines and other essentials to outlying clinics.
Gender Considerations
Activities concerned with improving water and sanitation systems and providing Title II food security interventions in conjunction with other health services are important to women in their key roles within households. Any and all assistance to improve maternal health and nutrition, through non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the Ministry of Health, should most obviously be continued and increased where possible. Assistance to women in any of these venues has obvious multiplier effects on the health and well-being of households.

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3.3
Increased Human Capacity (521-004)
Broader access to quality education with an emphasis on primary school completion, through
Equitable Access to Quality Basic Education, Improvement of Quality of the Workforce through
Vocational/Technical Education, Provision of Emergency Assistance and Strengthening the Public
Sector Executive Function.
Gender Considerations
Following from the 1998 Gender Analysis of USAID/Haiti’s Strategic Objectives and its recommendations, there is a presumption of sex-disaggregated data. This information would be important in gauging the effect of the various components of USAID’s education assistance on the educational survival rates of girls after six years in school, and in determining whether separate activities or incentives to address this issue are necessary. In addition, it is unclear whether vocational training has targeted economic activities where girls and women are employed, or could be employed.
3.4
Genuinely Inclusive Democratic Governance Attained (521-005)
Measures adopted to develop transparent and accountable democratic institutions, laws and economic and political processes and practices through:
· Establishment and assurance of Media Freedom and Freedom of information;
· Promotion and Support of Anti-corruption reforms;
· Promotion and support of credible elections processes;
· Protection of human rights;
· Reduction in trafficking in persons;
· Strengthening civil society;
· Strengthening democratic political parties;
· Strengthening of the Justice sector;
· Support of populations at risk.
Gender Considerations:
USAID’s support to a national network of community radio stations together with training of journalists, support to journalist associations and facilitation of public campaigns and information sharing are probably the most crucial elements in ensuring the informed and responsible participation of the population in all governance activities. As more than half of the electorate, women’s knowledgeable participation in the electoral process has the potential to “make or break” any issue of concern to them. If not already doing so, the broadcasting of social awareness spots and soap operas addressing gender issues is of prime importance in raising awareness of women’s rights and targeting discriminatory stereotypes and myths affecting women, as well as engaging women fully in demands for accountability and transparency.
Although USAID has provided considerable assistance to the elections process, this assistance could have been made more effective by including some of the national level women’s groups, especially the group, Collectif Feminin Haitien pour la Participation Politique des Femmes (FanmYoLa), whose explicit objectives of advocacy, training and awareness campaigns are precisely targeted to the electoral process and electoral candidates. FanmYoLa represents a wide array of feminist organizations, NGOs, civil society groups and political parties. Their occasional outside funding has come primarily from the Canadian office for women’s affairs, Fonds Kore Fanm. The USAID
Strengthening Democratic Political Parties activity implemented by the International Republican
Institute (IRI) and the National Democratic Institute (NDI), does include a component to increase women’s political participation, and IRI supports the organization Femmes et
Democratie.

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USAID’s support for the protection of human rights is exemplary, although it is unclear to what degree information and awareness regarding women’s rights have been included in the various training activities. Certainly, the Victims of Organized Violence project has addressed the needs of women victims, reportedly, 30 percent of those assisted. Similarly, with USAID support, the
Pan American Development Foundation (PADF) has addressed the needs of victims of child trafficking, over half of whom are young girls, and has done much to increase awareness and advocacy for these victims. On the other hand, the lead women’s rights organization in Haiti,
Organization de Defense de Droits des Femmes (ENFOFANM), and the only organization providing shelter to women victims, has not been included in this overall USAID assistance.
The Civic Forum program implemented by the NDI does not appear to particularly target either women’s groups or gender issues. This program would have benefited by coordinating with the country’s biggest civil society organization, The 184+, which not only regroups eleven women’s affairs umbrella associations but also has a prepared platform that integrates a series of gender issues. In addition to the creation of a Women’s Association of Judges through the IFES program, greater interaction with women’s groups in the justice sector would have been productive.
Mouvement des Femmes Haitiennes pour l’Education et le Developpement (MOUFHED), an organization not only specifically concerned with women’s rights, but also devoting much of its activities to providing legal assistance and counseling, working with female prison inmates, and placing legal interns into tribunal de paix around the country, would have been a valuable partner
Similarly, interaction with UNIFEM in this sector, with activities centered on training for judges on women’s rights, and with the Table de Concertation (task force) which brings together the various United Nations agencies, the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), and other donors and key Ministries, would have been useful.
The Office of Transition Initiatives’ Haiti program has directed its attention to key crisis spots, especially in the urban, gang-ridden neighborhoods of Port-au-Prince, Cap Haitien, St. Marc,
Petit Goave and Les Cayes, through small projects and promotion of dialogue. It is unclear whether young women were particularly targeted in these activities or, more importantly, whether women’s rights were included in the various dialogue, media and public forums. Across the board, all of the women’s groups contacted for this assessment cited violence against women, most especially from gangs, as the most urgent and overriding of their concerns. Given the unprecedented depravity and sadism accompanying much of gang violence, this is an extremely urgent issue which needs to be addressed directly.
3.5
Streamlined Government (521-006)
Measures adopted to develop transparent and accountable democratic institutions, laws and economic and political processes and practices, through: expansion and improvement of access to economic and social infrastructure, and strengthening of the public sector executive function.
Gender Considerations:
USAID’s assistance to key government offices, including the Prime Minister’s Office, and the
Ministries of Finance, Commerce, Planning, Education, Justice and Agriculture, together with
USAID’s assistance to the Ministry of Health, leaves glaring by its omission, the Ministry on the
Condition of Women and Women’s Rights (MCFDF). For the Government of Haiti, gender is seen as a cross-cutting issue affecting all sectors of society and the rationale for this Ministry is to ensure that all sectors of government respond to issues affecting women. Not only does every national women’s group work with this Ministry, it is also assisted by a wide variety of international donors. Its mandate and support, in tandem with the dismal and disenfranchised

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legal status of women in Haiti would argue for USAID to include the Ministry on the Condition of Women and Women’s Rights in all of its assistance to the Haitian government.
3.6
Tropical Storm Recovery Program (521-010)
Improved capacity of host countries and the international community to reduce vulnerabilities to disasters and anticipate and respond to humanitarian emergences, through improvement to economic and social infrastructure, improved access to clean water and sanitation, improved emergency preparedness and disaster mitigation, sustainable management of natural resources and biodiversity, increased agricultural sector productivity and protection and increased assets and livelihoods of the poor.
Gender Considerations:
One important element of Haiti’s economic and social infrastructure that often is ignored is the domestic marketing system, with its network of physical market places. The economic lifeblood of the country flows through these facilities and they are the primary public space for women’s activities. Any infrastructure work should ipso facto include the rehabilitation of public market spaces. The employment of almost 4000 women in the cash-for-work programs in Gonaïves and their majority among the 2,537 households that received housing or asset restoration grants, are to be lauded; lessons-learned from these activities would probably be beneficial in identifying other ways to directly engage women in these kinds of programs. The introduction of higher value crops with established internal markets, such as eggplant and peppers in the newly rehabilitated irrigation perimeters, should also be highlighted since this program directly benefits women’s income for their households.
4.

Consideration of Gender Issues in Draft Strategic Objectives*

4.1
Rule of Law and Governance
Under this objective, the workshop identified six major components:
4.1.1 Strengthening of the Justice Sector
Programs in this area support the increased independence, effectiveness and efficiency of justice sector institutions, including the judiciary, the prosecutors’ office, public defenders, the ombudsman’s office, regulatory bodies and public law schools and bar associations. In addition, this component may include support for private institutions, such as public interest law groups, legal assistance NGOs, alternative dispute resolution NGOs and private law schools and bar associations.41
Leaving aside for the moment the question of the legal status of women, current judicial functioning appears to systematically apply different penalties to men and women for breaches of law. Although the recent changes regarding violence against children and rape are positive signs, it remains to be seen whether the precedent set in the recent landmark case (cf. Section
2.1, Status of Haitian Women) will continue across the board, and whether other instances of inequality before the law will be corrected.

*

As formulated during the USAID/Haiti Strategy Workshop, March 3-4, 2006, Juvenat, Port-au-Prince, Haiti.
This and all of the following components listed under each draft strategic objective are derived from USAID’s Menu of Program
Components, distributed at the workshop.
41

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Interventions in this sector need to narrow the discrepancies that exist between the laws and their prosecution, through training and raising the awareness of judicial personnel. The
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against Women, ratified by Haiti in 1981 and 1986, respectively, also should be included and implemented. Awareness and application of laws already on the books that are favorable to women should be included in any training for judicial personnel and at the same time public awareness campaigns should target women themselves on their rights. Serious consideration should be given to encouraging the creation of family courts where domestic cases may be arbitrated and discussed, away from public audiences. Women are extremely reluctant to bring domestic cases, or cases of violence, to court because of traditional social constraints on airing private matters and fear of reprisals or public assaults on their reputations. Such private family courts would also underscore the gravity of domestic cases before the law.
Within the Strengthen Justice Sector component, the following were singled out for inclusion:
Human Rights
Improving due process, non-discrimination and representation of all segments of society.
Programs support (1) effective mechanisms to prevent the abuse of rights, including genderbased violence and exploitative child labor and for remedies when rights are abused, and the ability, in practice, to use these mechanisms; (2) legal aid and street law and public defender programs, including support for human rights advocacy and legal services NGOs and support for official commissions, human rights ministries and ombudsman offices.
Following from the preceding discussion, legal assistance and counseling for women and assistance to female prison inmates should be supported and expanded; efforts in this direction would greatly benefit from working in conjunction with, or supporting, women’s groups already focused on these issues, such as MOUFHED, as well as providing institutional support to the Ministry on the Condition of Women and Women’s Rights.
MOUFHED currently operates a mobile legal clinic that provides education on women’s legal rights to local women’s groups and coordinates with local judicial personnel, an effort that should be replicated throughout the country.
Human rights groups and women’s rights groups should be encouraged and supported in their advocacy efforts, especially in the acknowledgement and tabulation of incidents against women and their subsequent handling in the courts. Landmark cases should be supported and publicized to increase awareness in the overall population.
In judicial interventions, the “code of silence” is perhaps the most pernicious constraint for women in acting on the rights they already have in Haiti. This code prevents women themselves from reporting and filing complaints and also allows the courts and other judicial personnel to dismiss women’s cases as secondary or unimportant. The objective in all of these activities should be to break this code in whatever way possible.
USAID should join the Table de Concertation on women’s issues and coordinate its activities with other donors and the Ministry on the Condition of Women and Women’s Rights.

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Trafficking
Anti-trafficking activities may include activities that prevent trafficking of vulnerable persons or re-trafficking of victims; protect victims through shelters or other services; increase the effective prosecution of traffickers; or support rescue, rehabilitation and repatriation of victims to their home countries. The distinguishing characteristic of anti-trafficking activities to be included in this program component is that they have a specific antitrafficking purpose.
It would appear that PADF Trafficking in Persons project is directly addressing this objective, although insufficient information on that program was available at the time of this writing. The actual extent and nature of trafficking of restavek42 and domestic workers, as well as coerced prostitution, are unclear, and, if not already available, data to document these issues should be collected as part of the current program. This is especially true in the case of restavek, given that this institution was traditionally a normal and sought-after means to improve a child’s economic opportunities, and entailed obligations for both the sending and receiving families.
4.1.2 Strengthening the Legislative Function
Programs in this area seek to improve the way the legislature and legal framework work to uphold democratic processes. Programs focus on improving the framework of laws, including the constitution, codes, laws and regulations; and the legislature’s capacity to be responsive to the people it serves and hold the executive accountable.
Given the archaic and discriminatory status of women within the current legal and judicial systems, a prima facie case exists that addressing the legal status of women must logically precede any assistance designed to strengthen any of the various governance institutions. Thus, legal reform with regard to the status of women, under both civil and criminal law, should be a priority objective.
Any realistic efforts at legal reform need to be done through existing mechanisms. First and foremost is addressing the standing commissions concerned with gender affairs established under the 46th Legislature of the Haitian Parliament that ended in 2000. Within the Senate, the
Commission Permanente des Affaires Sociales et Familiales, Santé, Population, et Condition Feminine will need to be reconstituted when the newly elected Senators take their seats; and likewise, the
Commission Permanente du Ministère à la Condition Feminine et aux Droits de la Femme, in the
Chamber of Deputies.43
Second is to focus on the newly elected Senators and Deputies, especially the women. For both the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, eight female candidates will participate in the second round. Within an overall program of assistance to the newly elected legislature, special focus
42

Restavek, which means literally, ‘stays with,’ is a customary relationship whereby young children (6 years old and up, primarily young girls) are fostered by better off families, traditionally through extended kinship or godparent ties. It entails an obligation for the care and education of the child in return for the child performing household chores. It was, and in some cases probably still is, viewed as a means of upward social mobility for the child. The traditional relationship with poverty has become distored and expanded, however, beyond these pre-existing ties between the households, and beyond the upper classes, which traditionally received the children. The bourgeoisie insist that they respect the norms of restavek, and that it is the lower classes that abuse the relationship, but the distortion of the tradition today has progressed to the point that restavek is now considered in terms of trafficking in persons, child slavery, and domestic abuse in the PADF/USAID anti-trafficking program and other similar efforts.
Although both the traditional and abusive forms of the relationship continue to exist, rural-urban and Haiti-Dominican Republic restavek arrangements have the highest potential for abuse, since they are least subject to social control based on proximity and common social norms.
43
La 46éme Législature du Parlement Haïtien, Dépôt Légal, Bibliothèque Nationale d’Haïti, July 1996.

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should be given to supporting these women and encouraging them to form a Women’s Caucus, with attendant support in the form of training, staff, and facilities, and a continued dialogue between the Caucus, the Ministry on the Condition of Women and Women’s Rights, and the mainstream women’s advocacy groups.
Other potential activities for this component, discussed during the workshop, were addressing anti-corruption measures, human trafficking and oversight of the security sector. The latter two sets of activities will have a direct bearing on women’s rights, as previously discussed.
4.1.3 Strengthen Public Sector Executive Function
This component consists of strengthening the President’s or Prime Minister’s office, ministries, independent agencies and other executive offices to increase their effectiveness and accountability to the people they serve, both in terms of policy development and service delivery. This includes the strengthening of public sector economic institutions, organizations and associations. This assistance comes in the form of technical advisory services, training, material and other types of support.
The Ministry on the Condition of Women and Women’s Rights was established as the means for addressing women’s issues. However, since 1997, under-financing and consequent spending contractions have severely limited the scope of this Ministry’s activities. The Interim Haitian
Government did single out this Ministry in its Plan:
La Ministère à la Condition Fémnine et aux Droits des Femmes (MCFDF) mérite une attention particulière. Ce Ministère a été rapidement instrumentalisé par les administrations precedents. La période de transition sera mise à profit pour consolider la function transversale de l’institution en instaurant la généralization de l’analyse selon le genre au niveau de l’ensemble des actions étatiques. Ce faisant, l’équité de genre, facteur primordial de la cohesion sociale, reprend sa place centrale.44
[The Ministry on the Condition of Women and Women’s Rights (MCFDF) merits particular attention. This Ministry was rapidly activated under previous administrations. The transition period will serve to consolidate the cross-cutting function of this institution and to mainstream gender concerns across all state actions.
In so doing, gender equity, the prime factor in social cohesion, will be restored to its central place.]
The Ministry’s current Plan of Action has outlined four priorities:
1) judicial/legal changes to improve the status of women;
2) anti-poverty measures;
3) violence against women; and
4) sensitization and communication regarding women’s issues.
UNIFEM, together with the UNDP, is currently providing support to the Ministry by strengthening the Ministry’s regional offices.
USAID should include the MCFDF in its list of Ministries receiving support both in its current governance program as well as other interventions scheduled for the upcoming months. At the minimum, USAID should coordinate directly with the MCFDF in all of its activities within the

44

United Nations Development Fund for Women, “UNIFEM in Haiti: Supporting Gender Justice, Development and Peace” (July
2004).

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Rule of Law/Governance Strategic Objective as one vehicle for leverage to press gender concerns on the new government.
4.1.4 Support Democratic Local Governance and Decentralization
This component involves national and local-level support for democratic decentralization of political and financial authority and effective, democratic and accountable local governance.
Technical assistance and training is provided to strengthen local government functions, including development of budgets, local revenue raising, provision of basic services and community participation. Support might also include assistance to develop and/or strengthen municipal associations to provide local governments with a permanent vehicle to lobby for their interests before the national government.
Support to local governance should include a focused concern on gender issues through sensitivity training and ensuring that activities that directly affect women are prioritized. Among the latter, policing activity should be emphasized, and infrastructure issues should include markets, in addition to schools and clinics. This activity should ensure that local women’s advocacy groups are included in any public forums and are supported in their efforts to raise issues at the local level. These efforts should be particularly emphasized not just at the secondary cities level, but down to the level of smaller municipalities and Communal Section
Administrative Councils (CASECs).
4.1.5 Strengthen Civil Society
This component seeks to 1) strengthen the legal and institutional environment necessary for civil society to act as agents for reform, articulate and represent their members’ interests, engage in service delivery, advocate for issues which become part of the public agenda and are reflected in public policies, and 2) strengthen civil society’s capacity to impart civic knowledge and democratic values, and increase civic participation in political and civic life. Civil society includes a wide array of for-profit or non-profit organizations such as community-based groups, professional and business associations, trade and labor unions, farmer associations, religious groups, youth groups, watchdog associations, ethnic and home welfare groups, and issue-based groups. Investments in non-formal and formal civic education to promote democratic values and processes, pluralism and public dialogue are also included. Institutional interventions and assistance to organizations may pertain to any USAID programmatic or sectoral area, whether development, fragile, strategic, humanitarian or global issue/special concern.
During the Workshop, topics included for special attention under this component were political parties, the media, anti-corruption efforts, human rights, the mitigation of conflict, populations at risk, trafficking in persons and governance of security.
Haiti has an impressive and rich community of organizations that are dedicated to effecting change, from human rights, to women’s rights, to domestic violence and illiteracy. Groups concerned with all the aspects of women’s status already exist, both within and outside
Port-au-Prince, and many have consolidated their advocacy efforts under umbrella organizations or associations. Every major women’s advocacy group in Port-au-Prince has extensive ties to regional and rural associations. There is no issue identified in this assessment that does not already have a collection of advocacy groups mobilized around it.
Given this already strong women’s sector within civil society groups, it would be both counterproductive and senseless in practical terms for USAID not to coordinate all of its gender concerns, through its partners and program activities, in tandem with these

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advocacy groups. Furthermore, direct support and strengthening of these groups can only further the cause of women’s status in Haiti. Annex C lists the major women’s groups and their particular areas of concern; it should be utilized as a point of departure for interventions concerning gender and for widening a network of concerned groups. In fact,
USAID and its partners should not even be in the business of creating women’s civil society groups, and when implementation activities are directed to the creation of local groups for the receipt of services or information, as a matter of course these new groups should be linked to the existing local and regional associations in their areas.
USAID’s various strategic objectives should include, within the context of support and strengthening of these civil society groups, several different kinds of interaction or intervention: · Reliance on already formulated (by these women’s groups) formal and non-formal training modules concerning gender issues. These have been designed and tested already in relation to Haitian women and already incorporate cultural and social factors relevant to the subject.
· Contracting of these groups for services they provide that are relevant to ongoing projects or programs.
· Assistance for various outreach activities by these groups, including activities like mobile legal clinics, local forums, national conferences, etc.
· Facilitation of South-South dialogue, whereby these Haitian groups can impart their experiences and acquire knowledge of other’s experiences, to mutual benefit.
· Facilitation of these groups’ linkages to regional, hemispheric and global associations of like-minded advocacy groups.
4.2

Jobs, Livelihoods and the Environment

4.2.1 Support Populations at Risk
This component includes activities that facilitate the safe return, care and eventual reintegration of refugees, internally displaced persons and ex-combatants. Transition responses could include:
(1) community development activities that promote participation of previously marginalized and/or hostile groups; (2) reintegration of ex-combatants; (3) programs that support the constructive participation of young people at risk for recruitment into extremist groups.
In the current socio-political climate in Haiti, the most important population at risk is certainly urban male youth, i.e., urban gangs. The criminal and political activities of these gangs is of such a degree as to destabilize the major and secondary metropolitan areas, and all attendant economic activities, and to further jeopardize the installation and proper functioning of the newly elected government. While the most immediate redress of this problem needs to be through police action and disarmament, various programs could diminish the impact and extent of this situation.
As discussed earlier, the current gangs are heirs to a tradition of extra-state and political cum criminal actors that have been “fertilized” through participation in the drug trade. Based on anecdotal information acquired during this consultancy, the various gangs are not all of the same degree of “maturity.” The gangs seem to evidence a developmental cycle that will, if it has not already, culminate in full-fledged criminal enclaves like those found in Kingston and some Latin

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American countries. It is thus of paramount importance to address this problem in meaningful ways in both the immediate and short term timeframes.45
At the same time, it is imperative that the immediate victims of these groups be assisted, both because of their dire straits and because of the symbolic importance efforts to help them would have. Across all of civil society, including both women’s advocacy groups and individuals with a certain degree of gender sensibility, the single most important issue cited is violence against women. In addition to the already dishearteningly high recent rates of rape and other genderbased violence discussed in the first section of this assessment, which include both domestic and gang related incidents, an unprecedented new dimension to rape and violence against women has emerged. All groups involved in providing assistance to rape victims, and those reporting the incidents cited the fact that rape has become associated with a depraved application of torture and assault simply to elicit the expression of severe pain from female victims. While rape and other gender-based violence already cause humiliation for the women and their families, the addition of sadistic and depraved means to this assault signals a threshold for the destruction of women and society as a whole. After all, women are the poto mitan* of the
Haitian household and family and the means by which boys become responsible men. To assault women in this way is a wholesale attack on Haitian society and culture. It is crucial that efforts to address the insecurity situation and the gangs be paralleled by assistance to the principal victims, women and children, both in practical terms and as a crucial symbolic gesture.
USAID is currently supporting the IFES Victims of Organized Violence Program (under which 30 to 40 percent of the victims are women), but this support should be amplified and extended.
While the “code of silence” and the lack of knowledge of rights and services go a long way in explaining why more than 60 percent of women do not report or seek help when assaulted, the utter lack of sufficient services is also crucial. Currently, there is only one shelter for abused women in Port-au-Prince, and perhaps in the entire country, operated by ENFOFANM, and it can house only about 20 women and must rely on volunteers for basic medical and psychological services. Within this strategic objective, women should be considered a “population at risk”, especially in urban areas, and a significant increase in support to those groups and institutions assisting these victims should be integrated into USAID’s strategy.
4.2.2 Improve Economic Policy and the Business Environment
Activities whose primary purpose is to support economic stability, efficiency, and growth through improving microeconomic and macroeconomic policy and institutional frameworks and operations at both a national and sub-national level.
USAID’s activities under this component would increase the income streams primarily of urban women by improving the investment climate for the manufacturing industry. USAID should support the quick passage of the HOPE Act in the U.S. Congress,46 which is expected to create
40,000 new jobs in textiles manufacturing. Women workers have always been the majority in this sector and this growth would assist a broad spectrum of urban households, both directly
45

See the report on the assessment by the Conflict Mitigation Team (2006 USAID/Haiti), which was concurrent with the gender assessment. * a Creole term for the central structural post or beam of a house and often used to characterize women’s role in the family and society. 46
The Haitian Hemispheric Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement (HOPE) Act of 2004 would provide preferential trade treatment for textiles (apparel items) assembled in Haiti, if components originate in the U.S. or in countries to which the U.S. grants trade preferences.

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and indirectly. It also is worth noting, and emphasizing, that in Haiti, unlike other countries in the LAC region, poverty is not created in the market for wage labor; rather, wage labor is a primary mechanism for escaping poverty.47
4.2.3 Improve Private Sector Competitiveness
Activities whose primary purpose is to support the creation, productivity and growth of private enterprises and private trade in both the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors. Activities that serve to raise production standards and improve marketing, and create/strengthen value chain linkages are also included. Support for enterprises that derive income from sustainable management and use of natural resources are also part of this component.
Especially within the agricultural sector, there are many enterprises that could capitalize on the internal, domestic market exchange circuits largely operated by women. Mangos, as previously discussed, is a case in point. Other examples include the sale and distribution of energy conservation products (e.g. cooking stoves) and manufactured charcoal or other forms of energy based on renewable resources. In short, both in the supply and distribution chains, incorporating domestic market circuits would benefit female income streams, and in some cases, increase efficiency.
In terms of both agricultural and non-agricultural production, products that already fall within the domain of women’s economic activities should be identified and developed -- food and fruit processing are prime examples, as well as women’s arts like embroidery and other needlework
(e.g., as part of the Aid to Artisans program).
Another area worthy of attention is the identification of recyclable materials worthy of a saleable end product. (This type of program has been initiated by PADF as part of its urban activities.) One potentially significant product based on recycled materials is the production of packing and bulking materials, such as containers, stuffing, and pallets. These items, in turn, could be used to improve the transport of perishables in the domestic market and also in conjunction with exported items. This kind of production would be equally suitable to both men and women in urban settings, and for some materials, in the rural setting as well.
4.2.4 Protect and Increase the Assets and Livelihoods of the Poor
Includes activities that help the poor protect their productive assets, reduce risks to their livelihoods, minimize harmful survival strategies in times of stress, and establish or reestablish livelihoods after a natural disaster, economic downturn, or other external shock, as well as activities that help the poor increase and diversify their assets and sources of income and thereby enable them to take advantage of opportunities that will lift them out of poverty.
Illustrative activities include support for the expansion of financial and business development services to microenterprise, the development of new insurance products and productive social safety nets, public works to protect and improve productive infrastructure, and training and technical assistance to reduce risks during the agricultural production and related economic cycles. As previously discussed, during the last 15 years, there appears to have been an exponential growth of the micro-finance sector, both in microfinance institutions and in customers, including the significant entry into the sector of all but two commercial banks. Micro-credit is of major significance to poor rural and urban women since their primary livelihoods are based on petty

47

Sletten and Egset, Poverty in Haiti, 31.

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commerce, and further consolidation and expansion of this sector through USAID assistance is to be welcomed and encouraged.
Micro-credit is also an important vehicle to initiate restoration of the asset bases of poor households. However, the effect of micro-credit on poor households can be negative under certain loan conditions. Some anecdotal information suggests there may be a significant number of households that not only are not benefiting, but actually may be sinking further into poverty due to very high interest rates, too short loan cycles, and insufficient loan amounts. Market women turn over their capital and profits many times during any period of time, sometimes several times a week. Small profit margins, poor business acumen, and insufficient accumulation during limited time frames have caused women to have to sell other assets just to repay loans that come due at inopportune times. For this reason it is highly recommended that an assessment be undertaken at least of that portion of the microfinance sector that is meant to address the poorest households. Such an assessment would analyze the long and short term benefits accruing to individuals and examine differential rates of return for each kind of activity.
It should also attempt to measure any degree of capital formation that has occurred because of access to credit. Parallel comparisons should be made of various loan conditions. This analysis is needed as the basis for the formulation of new or expanded objectives for this sector.
The asset base of rural households is already greatly diversified and follows a traditional accumulation logic that starts with petty commerce (mostly through agricultural production), the profits of which are then invested in small, then large livestock, which in turn are sold for investment in productive land. Any intervention into this cycle can help to reverse the current processes of peasant de-capitalization. Micro-credit is an obvious point of entry, but so too is improved access to livestock – poultry, pigs, goats, and cattle. Even donkeys are extremely important for petty commerce as they allow larger amounts of goods to be transported and exchanged; an early study in the 1980s showed greatly increased profit margins when market women were able to obtain donkeys. Fruit trees also have a significant role in improving a household’s asset base. Given that petty commerce mostly begins with the household’s agricultural production, particular attention should be given to commodities exchanged in domestic markets.
It should be emphasized that strategic interventions to improve household incomes and livelihood bases will ensure a genuine recapitalization if the asset created remains with the household. Examples are credit that is sufficiently low interest and long term to accommodate commercial cycles; livestock schemes that allow at least one animal to remain with the recipient
(as in the traditional gadinaj system, where payment for the care of an animal is repaid by receiving one or more of its offspring); permanent seed banks; tool banks (operating on a kind of library book-borrowing system); and small irrigation systems, where the majority of plots are small and large landowners are not present. In this regard, it is worth noting that rural poverty is not caused by landlessness; about 80 percent of rural households have access to land and 70 percent cultivate land.48 This implies that USAID’s activities in this domain should focus on the recapitalization of rural households through their already-operating cycles of accumulation.
4.2.5 Improve Sustainable Management of Natural Resources and Biodiversity
Conservation
Activities included under this program component include those whose purpose is to support sustainable natural resource use and/or biodiversity conservation, in diverse landscapes that
48

Ibid., 20-21.

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potentially address multiple land use goals such as conservation, agricultural production, forestry, fisheries, provision of environmental services, and management of stocks to address climate change. Activities may be site-based or not site specific, such as policy and research.
Support may also include education, communication, capacity building and institutional strengthening activities leading to effective natural resource management and improved governance. This component focuses on activities that ensure long-term natural resource productivity, ecosystem health, biodiversity conservation and improved human capacity.
The preceding discussion of household livelihood assets is directly related to the concerns of this program component, since de-capitalization causes households to sell assets just for survival, and to mine the remaining few common assets. Farmers only cut down fruit trees for lumber or charcoal when the fruit has no market value or does not coincide with stress periods; land is not left fallow, or not improved, not because farmers don’t know or understand the conservation principles behind these practices, but because they have no alternatives or other resources. Interventions under this program component also should have as their focus the restoration of rural household assets, again by following the traditional logic of production and accumulation upon which the household mode of production is based. Current USAID activities like the distribution of fruit trees and creating alternatives to traditional energy sources are cases in point.
A further condition should be stressed, based on the discussion of geo-political units and Haitian social organization. The interface between USAID partners and the local populations must be carefully examined so that activities are linked to actual and relevant social units. This implies, for example, that garden plot neighbors, not residential neighbors or communities, should be the target group for watershed management and related agricultural activities; engagement with market women in most local markets should be the point of departure for activities concerning improved agricultural inputs, charcoal and alternatives, and increased production of more valuable (in terms of conservation) agricultural commodities; and, control of goats should be directed at women, not men.
Piggybacking food security measures onto natural resource management activities should be an important tool to mitigating livelihood stress during droughts and stagnant periods in the agricultural production cycle, which results in mining and destruction of remaining natural resources. These food security measures, including food-for-work, emergency rations and even cash-for-work, should be designed in function of local agricultural cycles (which vary enormously from region to region and among different ecological zones).

4.3

Basic Social Services

4.3.1 Improve Access to Clean Water and Sanitation
Activities whose purpose is to provide greater access to clean and adequate supplies of water to rural and urban households and communities, and the promotion of practices that protect these supplies from contamination by improper handling of domestic water supplies, household waste and inadequate sanitation. This includes organizational, technical and financial support for water and sanitation services. This component focuses primarily on service delivery to and service access by human populations.
Access to water is probably the single most important constraint on women in terms of their household activities and time allocation, not to mention its impact on the health and nutrition of

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households. Still, less than 10 percent of the rural population has access to water through private or public water facilities.49 Improved access has been and should remain an important objective for USAID assistance.
The heavy labor associated with capping water sources and constructing conduits and drainage systems is seen as men’s labor and, as is already the case, should be complemented by cash-forwork and other public employment schemes. Once a system is in place, however, water sources should be managed and maintained by local women, since they are its primary users and also use the site as a central point for interaction among women from different households and neighborhoods. Care should be taken that water systems and their distribution points are not situated on private land or associated with local power-holders to ensure that access cannot be controlled by private interests or through local patronage ties. In urban areas, this latter point is difficult. In the city control of water is a major source of economic and political power, and one reportedly employed by urban gangs; the most immediate solution to this situation would be an extensive system of water distribution, or, where possible, permanent security systems. Overall, water distribution points should be put in the control of locally constituted women’s groups, with relevant training in management and maintenance directed to them.
4.3.2 Achieve Equitable Access to Quality Basic Education
USAID defines basic education broadly to include all program efforts aimed at improving early childhood development, primary education, and secondary education – delivered in formal or non-formal settings – as well as training for teachers working at any of these levels and policy and system reform. USAID also includes in this definition training in literacy, numeracy, and other basic skills for adults and out-of-school youth. The common thread among these elements is that they help learners gain the general skills and basic knowledge needed to function effectively in all aspects of life.
As already discussed, Haitians show no gender preference in sending their children to school.
The problem of disparity in educational outcomes appears to lie primarily with relative economic value of the child to household livelihood, and the extent of the means at the household’s disposal for schooling. Female participation at higher levels of education falls significantly relative to male participation. An assessment of the impact of USAID assistance to basic education during the last strategy period in terms of gender is necessary to design interventions specifically targeting female students under the new program..
Given the high rates of illiteracy for Haitian women, non-formal literacy and numeracy training should be piggybacked onto all of USAID’s activities that interface with women’s groups, from microcredit to water to health.
To both mitigate violence against girls and women and to encourage contraceptive use, reproductive health training, for girls and boys, should be an integral part of the curriculum for primary education. The primary level curriculum is important because most children attend school at this level, and older children often remain at the primary level. Ignorance of basic human biology and reproduction is an important factor in understanding the large gap between contraceptive knowledge and use, and in impeding male participation in reproductive health programs. The same point applies to senstivity to gender rights and related issues.
49

Ibid., 42.

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The current interactive radio program appears to be quite successful, and serious consideration should be given to its expansion into other subjects, like reproductive health or gender awareness, and to its wider distribution into non-formal venues targeted at adult education, including literacy and numeracy.
4.3.3 Improve Child Survival, Health and Nutrition; Improve Maternal Health and
Nutrition; Support Family Planning
In as much as these objectives serve women directly or target women in their traditional roles, they should be continued and expanded. However, particular issues did emerge in the delivery of these services and the related training. Among current beneficiaries of USAID’s assistance, the previously mentioned gap between knowledge (90 percent) and use (30 percent) of contraceptive methods suggests that certain methodological aspects should be reexamined; furthermore, this problem seems to exist across the board in delivery of family planning services. There are several factors that may be at play here and should be given closer attention in any extension or expansion of the program.
1) Knowledge of contraceptive methods does not mean understanding how they work.
Women have only traditional stereotypes, myths and incomplete understanding of how their own bodies and reproductive systems work, and consequently they have little or no understanding of the mechanics of the various contraceptive methods.
Any departure from the normal, like physical ailments attending the use of one or another method, which may or may not be at fault, will cause a woman to cease use.
In addition, countless myths and superstitions circulate freely in this miasma of ignorance. Therefore, family planning programs and outreach should always be premised on instruction on human anatomy and biological processes, preferably with anatomical models to use as visual instructional tools, and include information on how particular methods, both mechanical and/or chemical, work. It also should include instruction on possible side effects and courses of action if the side effects occur. 2) Experience has shown that men are just as interested in these topics as are women, and as much in need of information as women. Including men, in separate groups, in such basic instruction also opens a space for negotiation between spouses on birth spacing and methods of contraception. As already mentioned in the preceding discussion on education, similar instructional modules should be disseminated as widely as possible among boys and girls and incorporated into the standard curriculum. 3) Finally, actual supplies, cost and distribution of contraceptives are more often than not an issue, especially in the general population, and especially in regard to the dependability of the supply of a preferred method and brand.
Throughout activities in this domain, it should be remembered that the relationship between a man and a woman is cemented with the birth of a child and that child in turn represents a lien on the father’s resources. The father is very much aware of the fact that he is materially responsible for the child and the mother of this child as well, and has a vested economic interest in whether he wants to have a child with a particular woman, reinforcing a man’s interest in contraception. In conditions of extreme poverty, getting pregnant is one of very few avenues to accessing another’s resources. In urban situations, multi-father female-headed households are very common, inherently unstable, and the source of tension and jealousy that can lead to abuse of women and children. When poor urban women, especially young women, cannot provide for

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themselves or their children, the scene is set for dysfunctional households, street children, prostitution, and a general absence of social cohesion.
In that vein, it is logical to bring health and family planning services to groups that are already targeted for some sort of assistance, whether microcredit or cash-for-work, or factory jobs.
Piggybacking of these services on all women’s groups being addressed in all of USAID’s activities is strongly recommended; similarly, already existing groups receiving just health and family planning services should be referenced to economic activities as well.
5.

Summary of Gender Factors and Recommendations for the Integration of
Gender Concerns in the Development of USAID’s Strategic Objectives

Summary of Critical Gender Factors:
1. Quite apart from questions of equity, any development intervention necessitates the consideration of women and an analysis of their role and activities, both in relation to men and as a population base in their own right. Failure to do so ignores, and even further marginalizes, the majority of the population.
2. Any intervention concerned with human rights, rule of law and the judicial system, governance, legislative and political processes must first and foremost address women’s legal status and current rights, since women remain second-class citizens with unequal representation before the law and the State. A prima facie case exists that addressing the status of women within the legal system must logically precede any assistance designed to strengthen the various institutions in these sectors.
3. The impoverishment of the Haitian population is essentially a process of de-capitalization, where in a downward spiral assets must be sold simply to ensure survival. In the traditional system, in ascending order, commercial capital (in the form of agricultural production), small livestock, large livestock, productive trees and land are the primary stores of capital; in order to reverse processes of impoverishment, recapitalization in some form must occur within this basic system. Women’s economic activities provide a structural entrée into this household economic system.
4. As in most developing countries, in Haiti, focusing on women’s economic activities automatically results in benefits to entire households in terms of nutrition, health, education and general well-being.
5. Poor urban communities evidence serious signs of a total breakdown of the social order, most apparent in the high rates of violence against women and abuse and neglect of children. Large-scale job programs targeting female-headed households, especially those with a different father for each of their children, would provide a logical point of departure for restoring social cohesion in these places.
6. Development interventions should give particular attention to identification of appropriate social units for their activities: engagement with local populations should avoid existing patron-client relations in both the economic and political domain, and should not assume that conventionally defined communities or neighborhoods are appropriate socio-spatial units. Interventions that depend on genuine participation by partners and/or beneficiaries

37 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

should be carried out with already established and functioning groups. Social capital cannot be assumed beyond these groups.
7. Women are marginalized when they interact with men, but at the same time, women exercise a considerable degree of autonomy and independence in the management of household resources. For development practitioners, a genuine and productive relationship with women and women’s groups requires a majority presence of women. Some Haitian advocacy groups state that no more than 10 percent of those present for their meetings and activities can be men.
8. If economic activities that fall within the domain of women are addressed through men, either as heads of households or as members of local groups, women automatically are eliminated from decision-making and control.

Recommendations and Issues for USAID’s Strategic Objectives
(In descending order of priority)
1. Violence Against Women. The single gender issue most often cited and emphasized by women’s advocacy groups, is violence against women. This is an issue that emerges from dialogue with base groups all the way to the upper classes. The worst violence against women is occurring in urban areas and appears to be related to gangs. Efforts to reduce this violence should be a priority, especially in the initial six months of the upcoming strategy period. 2. Legal Reform. Primary consideration should be directed to addressing the archaic and discriminatory legal status of women. Support for legal reform should proceed through two mechanisms: (i) the Permanent Commissions on Women in the Senate and the Chamber of
Deputies; and, (ii) the Women’s Caucus within the newly elected Parliament.
3. Judicial Reform. Attention should be given to the discrepancy between existing law and its practice in the case of women, through the prosecution of landmark cases and legal assistance programs. Serious efforts should be directed to the creation of a system of Family
Courts.
4. Overall Governance. At all levels of government, gender awareness and issues attendant to women’s rights and status, should be integral to all programs of support, assistance and training. 5. Jobs and Livelihoods. Extensive job creation programs in urban areas together with improvements in the business environment should be supported and care taken that jobs that “fit” women’s economic activities are included. In rural areas, livelihood support and development should focus primarily on women’s economic activities within both the household economy and the domestic economy as the most effective and most inclusive means for redressing the continuing impoverishment of the rural population. In addition, job creation programs that involve infrastructure should include markets and market rehabilitation. 6. Women’s Groups. USAID’s support and assistance should interface at local levels with women’s groups that have a predominance of women among their ranks. To the extent

38 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

possible, already existing women’s groups should be engaged, from the most local right up to the national level. Empowerment of women through women’s groups as a vehicle of implementation and education for all sectors should be the general rule, not the exception.
Substantive technical and educational packages, including methodologies for the formation of new groups, already designed, tested and implemented by the various women’s advocacy groups should be incorporated into women-related activities; where relevant, contracts should be let directly to these special interest groups for the development of new technical and educational modules.
7. Inter-program Synergy. To the extent possible, each strategic objective’s proposed activities should be piggybacked on other relevant activities within the Mission’s portfolio through mutual targeting of local women’s groups. Thus, microfinance programs could work with women’s health groups, and vice versa; food assistance, legal assistance, health services, family planning, and educational curriculum development, and so on, could all work through the same base groups to target women’s participation.
8. Inter-donor Synergies. USAID should identify other donors’ programs targeting women’s issues and seek means to collaborate in that support. Assistance and support to the Ministry on the Condition of Women and Women’s Rights would be a case in point, as would legislative support, judicial reform and national level women’s advocacy groups.
9. South/South Dialogue. Wherever possible, USAID should include support to facilitating
South/South dialogue between women’s advocacy groups in Haiti and similar groups in other international and national arenas.

39 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

Annex A

Table 1: Types of Households
Northwest

%ofHHs
Male-headed
71.7
Legally married
30.7
Plaçé with woman
34.4
Separated/Divorced
2.1
Widowed
3.0
Single
1.5
Female-headed
28.3
Legal w/absent hus
4.9
Plaçé with man
7.8
Separated/Divorced
4.2
Widowed
9.4
Single
1.9
Total Sample
100

HH Size
6.6
6.6
7.1
3.8
4.5
4.2
5.6
6.8
5.6
4.9
5.2
6.1
6.3

Artibonite,
Center,
North, Northeast
& West
%ofHHs
HH Size
71.1
5.6
26.2
6.2
36.6
5.7
3.6
3.3
2.8
4.2
1.9
2.3
28.9
4.7
1.3
6.4
3.9
4.9
8.7
4.2
9.6
4.5
4.3
4.8
100
5.3

Southern Peninsula

%ofHHs
73.4
37.0
27.9
2.3
3.9
2.3
26.6
2.9
2.7
5.4
12.3
3.4
100

HH Size
5.9
6.1
6.3
4.3
4.1
3.1
5.1
6.1
6.4
4.8
4.6
5.3
5.7

Table 2: Percentages of Rural Households Earning Income by Types of Activity
Artibonite,
Center,
Northwest
North, Northeast
Southern Peninsula
&
West
Agricultural
89.4
82
90
Production
Agricultural Wage
36.2
33
34.3
Labor
Fishing
na
6
3.8
Livestock
na
54
16.6
Sales
Non-agricultural
40.5
34
29.8
Activities
Petty
69.3
57
46.2
Commerce
Crafts &
13.6
12
19.9
Artisanship
Remittances and na 5
13.8
Migration

40 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

Annex A

Table 3: Shares (in percentages) of Household Income byType of Activity
Artibonite,
Center,
Northwest
North, Northeast
Southern Peninsula
&
West
Agricultural
22
34.4
43
Production
Agricultural Wage
9.0
6.8
8.0
Labor
Fishing
2.0
3.9
na
Livestock
Sales
Non-agricultural
Activities
Petty
Commerce
Crafts &
Artisanship
Remittances and
Migration

13

10.2

na

13

8.4

25

28

16.1

20

4.0

2.4

4.0

8.0

10.0

1.0

Table 4: Share of Various Livelihood Activities in Total Household Income by Level of Household Vulnerability (percentages)
Artibonite, Center,
Northwest
North, Northeast & Southern Peninsula
West
Extreme, High
Ex Hi Mo Lo Ex
Hi Mo Lo Ex Hi Mo Lo
Moderate, Low
Agricultural
36 21 14
9 31.4 32.2 35.4 36.8 38
38
41
51
Production
Agricultural Wage
12 10
7
4 12.8 9.0 4.7 2.0
15
12
7
4
Labor
Fishing
1.0 1.0 1.0
4
1.4 2.7 4.3 6.5
Livestock
8
13 17 20 7.6 10.1 12 10.5
Sales
Non-agricultural
8
13 18 19 1.2 1.0 1.8 2.1
24
25
26
24
Activities
Petty
21 29 31 33 14. 17.8 16.2 16.1 10
16
16
15
Commerce
Crafts &
4
4
4
4
3.0 2.1 3.0 1.7
6
4
4
3
Artisanship
Remittances and
8
9
9
7 12.4 9.8 8.2 11.8 0.8 1.0 1.4 0.7
Migration
Notes and Sources for Tables:
For the preceding tables: commerce is a hugely remunerative activity, once again accounting for over half the average income of the household in many localities. The figures here do not
41 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

Annex A

include the income from agricultural produce that households may have sold on the market.
The major component of this income is derived from entrepreneurial profits earned in markets by women, and a small amount reflects charcoal sales. (Northwest Baseline, p.102)
Also note that while this data is relatively dated, it remains the most in-depth study of the greatest number of households for Haiti; the social parameters revealed in these three surveys continue to be valid for an overall picture and understanding of the rural population.
CARE: A Baseline Study of Livelihood Security in Northwest Haiti, by The Bureau of Applied
Research in Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Final Draft, April 1996.
ADRA (The Adventist Development and Relief Agency) and The Interim Food Security
Information System: A Baseline Study of Livelihood Security in the Departments of the Artibonite,
Center, North, Northeast and West, by The Bureau of Applied Research in Anthropology,
University of Arizona, Tucson, May 1997.
CRS (Catholic Relief Services) and The Interim Food Security Information System: A Baseline
Study of Livelihood Security in the Southern Peninsula of Haiti, by The Bureau of Applied Research in
Anthropology, University of Arizona, April 1996.

Recent Data on Rural Household Income and Consumption
The following charts based on more recent data (2000) affirm the validity of the social parameters documented by the 1996 studies. These charts are extracted from the March 2005 study prepared by Paul Bartel for FEWSNET/Haiti1. While the format of this presentation is different from that of the earlier Livelihood Security studies the broad picture of household income generation and consumption for rural Haiti is similar.

1

FEWSNET is the USAID Famine Early Warning Systems Network. The data for the current study are drawn from a 1999 to 2000 national household consumption survey carried out by the L’Institut Haitien de Statistiques et d’Informatique (IHSI).

42 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

Annex A

Source des Revenues (% )

Dons, 9.5

Récolte,
20.4

Hors
Agricole,
63.2

Hors Agricole

Récolte

Pêche/Chasse

Elevage

Dons

Location

Figure 1: Sources de revenue d’un Ménage Typique du Milieu Rural

Structure de Consumation

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%

al ts ot
T
en im re nd ut A Co
/
re uc S e ul éc
F
e m gu

its ru F le ui H it La on ss oi
P e nd ia
V le éa ér
C

Total
Achats
Auto­Production
Dons

Figure 2: Modèle de Consommation Généralisé des Ménages Ruraux
Source : FEWSNET/Haiti, March 2005
43 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

Annex B

KEY WOMEN’S ADVOCACY GROUPS IN PORT-AU-PRINCE, HAITI
ENFOFANM
Organisation de Défense de Droits des Femmes
Myriam Merlet, Executive Director
16, Rue de la Ligue Féminine
Port-au-Prince, Haïti
Telephone/fax: (509) 245-0346
E-mail: enfofanm@direcway.com
ENFOFANM is a non-profit organization whose mission is to defend the rights of Haitian women and to promote Haitian women as actresses in the process of national development. It works in four areas: documentation and archives, communications, capacity building and women’s rights and advocacy.
FANMYOLA
Collectif Féminin Haïtien pour la Pariticipation Politique des Femmes
Marie Laurence Lasegue, Director
306, Route de Bourdon, Port-au-Prince, Haïti
Telephone: 509) 244-5428; 557-4811; 410-0689
E-mail: fanmyola@yahoo.fr; malizoue@yahoo.fr
FANMYOLA is a non-profit organization whose mission is to promote women’s participation in the
Haitian political process.
MOUFHED
Mouvement des Femmes Haïtiennes pour l’Education et le Développement
Jessie Ewald Benôit, Executive Director
22, 1ére rue Wilson, Pacot
B.P. 1295
Port-au-Prince, Haïti
Telephone: (509) 244-4099 www.moufhed.org and moufhed@yahoo.fr
MOUFHED is a non-profit organization whose mission is the promotion of the fundamental rights of women and the family; it is especially involved in women’s legal issues, including legal advice and counseling and training.
RÉSEAU NATIONAL DE DÉFENSE DES DROITS HUMAINS -- RNDDH
Marie Yolène Gilles, Assistant Program Director
9, Rue Rivière
Port-au-Prince, Haïti
Telephone: (509) 244-1495; 244-1496; 245-3486
Fax: (509) 244-4146 www.rnddh.org and lgilles@rnddh.org
Formerly the National Coalition of Haitian Refugees, this organization is a watchdog and advocacy group for human rights in Haiti and documents and report incidents of various abuse, including those including and affecting women.
SOLIDARITE FANM AYISYEN -- SOFA
Evelyne Larrieux, Director
Telephone: (509) 244-7114

44 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

Annex B

FEMMES EN DEMOCRATIE
Danielle Saint Lôt, Présidente
No. 137, Rue Louverture
Pétionville, Haiti
Telephone: (509) 550-8826
E-mail: dsaintlot@yahoo.com
Femmes en Démocratie was formed in March 2000, as a non-profit organization inspired by the international movement to support women to their fullest potential in the judicial, social, political and economic domains. Its primary objectives are to promote the emergence of a feminine Haitian leadership; support women to participate in the highest levels of decision-making; communicate and support th exchange of experiences and best practices, and constitute a feminine lobby to national and international decision-makers.
GROUP 184 +
Yannick Lahens, Assistant to the Director
14, Rue Borno
Montagne Noire, Port-au-Prince, Haïti
The Group 184+ is a coalition of close to 300 civil society organizations across the country, including 11 women’s advocacy coalitions and umbrella associations.
Telephone: (509) 408-9629
FONDS KORE FANM
Sabine Manigat, Coordinator
08, Rue Emeric, Route de Montana
Bourdon, Haïti – B.P. 15944
Telephone: (509) 246-9159;246-9163; 246-9166; 246-9169
Fax: (509) 246-9177
E-mail: sabine.manigat@cgf.ht
This is the Local Management Office for Canadian Cooperation in Haiti exclusively concerned with women’s issues and development; it currently has a budget of CDN$4 million for support to women’s issues and groups.
UNIFEM
United Nations Development Fund for Women
Kalinda Magloire, Resident Coordinator
UNDP Offices in Port-au-Prince
Telephone:
(509) 244-9350, extension 2089
E-mail: kalinda.magloire@undp.org
Madame Eveline Magloire Chancy, le Ministre
MINISTÈRE À LA CONDITION FÉMININE ET AUX DROITS DES FEMMES (MCDF)

45 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

Annex C

CONTACTS IN PORT-AU-PRINCE, HAITI
USAID/WASHINGTON:
Rosalie Fanale, USAID LAC
Alex Berg, Assessment Team/Conflict, Decentralization
Katie Hamlin, Assessment Team/Conflict, Youth
USAID/HAITI:
Erna Kerst, Director
Laurence Hardy, Deputy Director
Karen Poe, PCPS
Kurt Low, PCPS (Dominican Republic)
Khadijat Mojidi, PHN
Grace Lang, ED
Michael Kerst, FSHA
Eunice Irizarry, EG
Bill Riley, JDG
Belinda Bernard, JDG
Marie Jude Delatour, JDG
Gérard Fontain, JDG
Laura McPherson, CRI Consulting
Danielle Saint Lôt
Consultant, International Republican Institute and
President, Femmes en Démcratie
Lisa François, Executive Director
Michelle Vernet Louis
FANMYOLA (Collectif Féminin Haïtien pour la Participation Politique des Femmes)
Yannick Lahens
Assistant to the Coordinator
Groupe 184+
Kalinda Magloire
Resident Coordinator, Haiti
United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)
Marie Yoléne Gilles
Assistante – Responsible de Programmes
Reseau National de Défense des Droits Humains
Jessie Ewald Benoît
Directrice Executive
MOUFHED (Mouvement des Femmes Haïtiennes pour l’Èducation et le Développment

Sabine Manigat
Gestionnaire Fonds Kore Fanm
Centre de Gestion des Fonds Locaux de la Coopération Canadienne en Haïti

46 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

Annex C

Myriam Merlet
Directrice Executive
ENFOFANM (Organisation de Défense de Droits des Femmes)
Cecile Marotte
Directrice de Projet Victimes de Violence Organisée
IFES
Yves Colon
Chief of Party
Rasambleman Media pou Aksyon Kominote
Creative Associates International, Inc.
Alphonse Nkunzimana
Coordinator, Anti-trafficking in persons project
PADF

Please note that Madame Eveline Magloire Chancy, Ministre à la Condition Féminine et aux
Droits des Femmes (MCDF), was unavailable for consultation during the allotted period of this consultancy. 47 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

Annex D

Bibliography/Literature Reviewed
Adams, Rebecca/DEVTECH, Gayle Morris/International Center for Research on Women,
Patricia Martin/ICRW, and Hannah Baldwin/DEVTECH. “Gender Analysis of USAID/Haiti’s
Strategic Objectives.” WID TECH/USAID, January, 1998.
The Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA ) and The Interim Food Security
Information System. “A Baseline Study of Livelihood Security in the Departments of the
Artibonite, Center, North, Northeast and West.” Tucson: The Bureau of Applied Research in
Anthropology, University of Arizona, May 1997.
CARE. “A Baseline Study of Livelihood Security in Northwest Haiti” (Final Draft). Tucson: The
Bureau of Applied Research in Anthropology, University of Arizona, April 1996.
Clermont, Carine, Kathy Mangonès, Elisabeth Metéllus. “Construire et Se Construire: Ètude expoloratoire sur les effets d’habilitation des formation dispensées par des organizations partenaires du Projet Kore Fanm.” UAPC/ACDI, May, 2003.
Coalition Haïtienne des Femmes Leaders (COHEL) et Réseau des Femmes Candidates pour
Gagner (RFCG). “Plateforme Èlectorale des Candidates aux Elections Législatives et Municipales de 2006.” Institut Républicain International, Femmes et Democratie, et Bureau des Affaires
Publiques de l’Ambassade des USA, Janvier 2006.
Correia, Maria. “Gender and Poverty in Haiti.” ms, nd.
Catholic Relief Services (CRS) and The Interim Food Security Information System. “A Baseline
Study of Livelihood Security in the Southern Peninsula of Haiti.” Tucson: The Bureau of Applied
Research in Anthropology, University of Arizona, April 1996.
Filmer, Deon. “The Structure of Social Disparities in Education: Gender and Wealth.” The
World Bank Development Research Group/Poverty Reduction and Economic Management
Network, November 1999.
Fuller, Anne. “Challenging Violence: Haitian Women Unite Women’s Rights and Human Rights.”
Association of Concerned Africa Scholars, Special Bulletin on Women and War, Spring/Summer
1999
I. Guest, “Haiti Beyond the Headlines,” Populi (1994).
“Haiti – Femmes: Peine de reclusion à perpétuité pour 2 violeur.” Mercredi: AlterPresse, March
2006.
Haiti Press Network. “Haïti: la loi du côté des femmes.” July 16 2005.
Haitian Parliament. “La 46éme Législature du Parlement Haïtien” Dépôt Légal, Bibliothèque
Nationale d’Haïti, Juillet 1996.
Human Rights Watch & National Coalition for Haitian Refugees. ”Rape in Haiti: A Weapon of
Terror,” Volume 6, No. 8, July 1994.

48 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

Annex D

IFES/VOV, Programme d’Assistance aux Victimes de Violence Organisée. “La Violence organisée et ses consequences auprès des victims et auprès de la communauté.” Tables rondes Mars, Juin et Juillet, 2005.
Klasen, Stephan. “Does Gender Inequality Reduce Growth and Development? Evidence from
Cross-Country Regressions.” The World Bank Development Research Group/Poverty
Reduction and Economic Management Network, November 1999.
Lampietti, Julien A., and Linda Stalker. “Consumption Expenditure and Female Poverty: A
Review of the Evidence.” The World Bank Development Research Group/Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network, April 2000.
Merlet, Myriam. “La Participation Politique des Femmes en Haïti: Quelques elements d’analyse.”
Editions Fanm You La, 2002.
Ministère de la Planification et de la Coopération Externe (MPCE). “Document de StrategieInérimaire de Reduction de la Pauvrèté.” DSRP-I, Draft, 15 Decembre 2005.
POLICY Project, MSPP-UCC. “Le VIH/SIDA en Haiti: Une Raison d’Espérer.” December 2004
“Population, Health and Human Well-being – Haiti, 2003.” EarthTrends Country Profiles: www.earthtrends.wri.org. Population Reference Bureau, PRB Country Profiles, http://www.prb.org/TemplateTop.cfm?Section=PRB_Country_Profiles&template=/customsource /countryprofile/countryprofiledisplay.cfm&Country=362.
Quisumbing, Agnes R. and John A. Maluccio. “Intrahousehold Allocation and Gender Relations:
New Empirical Evidence.” The World Bank Development Research Group/Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network, October 1999.
The SEEP NETWORK. “Measuring Poverty Directly: Insights from ACCION’s Poverty
Assessment Project.” Progress Note, No. 10, October 2005.
SIECUS PEPFAR Country Profiles, www.siecus.org
Sletten, Pål and Willy Egset. “Poverty in Haiti.” Fafo-paper, 2004.
Solidarite Fanm Ayisyen (SOFA). “Eta Sitiyasyon Vyolans sou Fanm ak Tifi nan Peyi Dayiti.” novanm 2005.
Swallow, Brent M., Ruth S. Meinzen-Dick, Lee Ann Jackson, Timothy O. Williams, and T.
Anderson White, “Multiple Functions of Common Property Regimes,” EPTD Workshop
Summary Paper No.5, Environment and Production Technology Division of the International
Food Policy Research Institute and the CGIAR System-Wide Program on Property Rights and
Collective Action, Panel presented at the International Association for the Study of Common
Property 6th Annual Conference, June 7, 1997.
UNICEF. “Germaine Chercher la Vie.” Port-au-prince: 1993.

49 Gender Assessment
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Annex D

United Nations/Economic and Social Council/Commission on Human Rights, Integration of the
Human Rights of Women and the Gender Perspective: Violence Against Women [Report of the
Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, Ms Radhika
Coomaraswamy] “Report on the Mission to Haiti,” E/CN.4/2000/68/Add.3, 27 January 2000.
United Nations Development Fund for Women. “UNIFEM in Haiti: Supporting Gender Justice,
Development and Peace.” July 2004.
United Nations Development Fund. Gender Profile of the Conflict in Haiti (2005), http://www.womenwarpeace.org/ USAID/Haiti. “Annual Report, FY 2006, with CBJs.” January 27, 2006.
USAID. “Fragile States Strategy.” January 2005.
Dorte Verner. “Making the Poor Haitians Count Takes More Than Counting the Poor: A
Poverty and Labor Market Assessment of Rural and Urban Haiti based on the First Household
Survey for Haiti.” World Bank, April 2005.
“World Bank Report No. 21866-LAC: A Review of Gender Issues in the Dominican Republic,
Haiti and Jamaica.” Caribbean Country Management Unit, Gender Group, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit, Latin America and the Caribbean Region, December 2002
“World Bank Report No. 17242 HA, Haiti, The Challenges of Poverty Reduction, Volume I and
II.” Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit and Caribbean Country Management
Unit, Latin America and the Caribbean Region, August 1998.
World Health Organization. The World Health Report 1998. Life in the Twenty-first Century: A
Vision for All. Geneva: WHO, 1998.

50 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

Annex E

Scope of Work
Gender Assessment
Haiti Country Strategy Statement

I.

Introduction

USAID/Haiti requires a Gender Assessment to inform the preparation of its new country strategy and Strategy Statement document. The Strategy Statement, which will cover the years
FY 2007-2009, is due in Washington by June 5, 2006. This scope of work provides background and outlines the requirements for this Gender Assessment.
II.

Background

A.

Haiti Program

Following a period of civil unrest that resulted in the departure of President Aristide in February
2004 and the installation of an Interim Government in March 2004, the country has been characterized by heightened levels of social, economic and political instability. A UN Stabilization
Force (MINUSTAH) is currently working with the Haitian National Police to maintain order.
National elections are scheduled for February-March 2006, with the installation of a new government shortly thereafter.
USAID/Haiti is in the final year of implementation of its current Strategic Plan (FY1999-2006).
USAID/Washington has set June 5, 2006 as the due date for a new strategy to be prepared in the Strategic Statement format (which replaces the previous Country Strategic Plan).
USAID/Haiti has developed a strategy development timeline that incorporates a Strategy
Workshop and intensive consultations with mission staff, with Embassy, USAID/Washington and
Department of State stakeholders, as well as with donors, partners, and the newly elected government. This Gender Assessment will be one of several cross cutting assessments
(including a Conflict/Instability Assessment) undertaken as a part of this process. With Haiti defined as a fragile state, the Strategy Statement will be prepared in accord with USAID’s Fragile
States Strategy, as well as specific guidance from the USAID’s Bureau for Latin America and the
Caribbean. The timing of the strategy development process is particularly opportune as it will coincide with the initial efforts of the newly elected government to set development priorities.
The current Strategic Plan includes three Strategic Objectives: Sustainable Increased Income for the Poor, Healthier Families of Desired Size, Increased Human Capacity, More Genuinely
Inclusive Democratic Governance, and two Special Objectives: Streamlined Government and
More Secure Lives of Haitians affected by Devastating Tropical Storm Flooding in 2004. USAID in Haiti has an active Title II development and food assistance program. The Mission portfolio in
FY 2005 totaled $192.9 million including $113.8 million DA, CSH and ESF, $37.4 million Title II and $38.2 IDFA for Hurricane Jeanne reconstruction and $3.5 million Transition Initiatives.
Although Strategic Objectives for the new strategy have not yet been formally defined,
USAID/Haiti anticipates that helping to meet the basic needs of Haitian citizens will continue to form a central part of its program for the next three years. These needs include better health care and education; more jobs and economic opportunities; greater access to equitably applied
51 Gender Assessment
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Annex E

justice; humanitarian assistance; and institutions capable of providing these basic needs.
Development challenges that the new strategy will address include public sector institutions with little governance capacity; an anemic private sector whose growth is severely constrained by a poor security environment; and degradation of the country’s natural resources needed for productive enterprise. USAID anticipates funding programs that: work to strengthen key ministries, especially those responsible to provide basic services; help citizens create demand for better governance, justice and accountability and participate in civic life; help create jobs, particularly for youth; rehabilitate productive infrastructure; and encourage small business growth while protecting the environment. A special focus will be to support vulnerable populations. The extended political turbulence, conflict and violence in the country have worsened economic and social instability and insecurity. USAID/Haiti anticipates funding programs that help to protect and increase food security and the livelihoods and assets of the poor; and promote stability in areas with high levels of violence.
B.

Agency Directives for Strategic Planning

Under new Agency procedures for strategic planning, country-level Strategy Statements replace the former country Strategic Plans. The Strategy Statements are brief, “visionary” documents written at a general level, based on broad policy guidance and strategic frameworks provided by
USAID/Washington. They summarize USAID’s strategic direction for a country and include statements of strategic objectives, proposed program components, and broad results. The
Strategy Statement document should not exceed ten pages (not including attachments).
Detailed operational and activity-level information are not part of the Strategy Statement but rather are assembled in subsequent plans and design documentation.
These changes in Agency procedures mean that more of the detailed analytical and planning work takes place as a part of activity development. As a result the level of analytical work undertaken at the Strategy Statement phase should be limited to that which is required to prepare the more general document and should draw upon existing data and publications to the maximum extent possible.
Gender considerations and USAID’s gender mainstreaming approach remain important under these new Agency strategic planning procedures. USAID missions must address gender aspects of the development challenges in the country in their Strategy Statements. Gender considerations should be taken into account as priorities are identified and technical issues considered in the development of a given strategy. The presentation of overall strategic direction and of each strategic objective should incorporate an integrated understanding of gender concerns. In addition, the Gender Assessment for the Strategy Statement should outline the types of gender concerns that need to be considered in subsequent planning stages.
III.

Statement of Work

A. Purpose
The purpose of this Gender Assessment is to identify gender factors that should inform the development of USAID’s strategy for Haiti in the period FY 2007-2009. The Gender
Assessment should include general factors to be addressed in the Strategy Statement itself, as well as more specific factors to be considered in the preparation of sector analyses, operational plans and activity designs. USAID will use the Gender Assessment to help ensure the application of a gender perspective to its strategy and programs for FY 2007-2009.

52 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

Annex E

B. Methodology
The method to be followed requires the following logical steps: o Review of existing data (gender-differentiated development indicators and constraints) and gender analyses.

o

Identification of ongoing USAID/Haiti activities that incorporate gender factors or address specific gender-based constraints.

o

Analysis of proposed sectors of involvement and strategic objectives in terms of gender factors and gender-based obstacles to achieving desired results. (It will be important to coordinate closely with the team undertaking the Conflict/Instability Assessment in order to share information regarding gender factors in the causes and impacts of violence and political instability).

o

Identification of linkages between gender and development objectives that are relevant for the Strategy Statement, both in outlining the overall development context and in describing the strategic objectives.

o

Identification of gender-related factors to be taken into account by USAID in subsequent operational plans, sector analyses and activity designs; these are to be presented in the form of issues and recommendations for further examination.

o

As relevant, suggested topics for further gender analysis as a part of program development. Throughout the work, the contractor should coordinate with the separate contract team working on overall strategy development.
The Gender Assessment should discuss gender data, concerns, priorities, and approaches in such a way that it not only informs the Strategy Statement but also provides useful guidance for
USAID/Haiti to use in the next phase of program development. It should, where appropriate, include examples that demonstrate application of existing gender analyses and lessons from experience with ongoing programs that address gender constraints.
C. Task Areas
Preparation of the Assessment will require review of existing documents, consultations with selected individuals in Haiti, and (if possible) participation in the USAID/Haiti Strategy
Workshop.
1. Literature Review
Review and analysis of pertinent literature and documents will commence prior to traveling to
Haiti and continue while the contractor is in Haiti. Prior to traveling to Haiti the contractor should compile a bibliography of publicly available relevant documents, augmenting documents already in hand by conducting a web search. The list should be shared with the USAID/Haiti point of contact, who may suggest priorities among the list for review prior to arrival.

53 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

Annex E

USAID/Haiti will also send relevant internal documents to the contractor to augment the bibliography. USAID anticipates that the contractor will obtain additional documents for review while in Haiti.
The contractor should anticipate reading relevant USAID strategies and assessments, both cross-cutting and sector-specific; current USAID planning documentation; implementation reports and evaluations of selected, relevant program activities; and special gender-related studies. Studies and assessments conducted by donors, international, regional and government organizations, NGOs, and the academic community may also be important. Suggested initial sources include:
(1)

Gender Analysis of USAID/Haiti’s Strategic Objectives, 1998. Gender
Assessment conducted as part of its current strategy. This document is organized by sector, with suggested approaches to gender integration in human capacity development; sustainable economic opportunities; health; democracy and governance.

(2)

World Bank 2002 document, which includes a section on Haiti. This document includes a gender profile and national indicators; and discussion of legal and institutional frameworks; economic coping strategies; women’s education and economic participation; household situations; health processes; and violence against women.

(3)

Gender Profile of the Conflict in Haiti, UNIFEM, 2005. This document describes recent unrest and instability and Haiti’s dysfunctional judiciary and its impact on women, with detailed discussion of economic security; human rights and factors contributing to violence.

2. Meetings and Phone Consultations
·

The contractor will participate in entry and exit meetings with the USAID/Haiti point of contact.

·

The contractor will consult with a broad range of USAID/Haiti staff. USAID will provide an initial list of priority contacts. The contractor may augment this list after beginning work in-country. Contacts will include staff of the program office and of each technical office.

·

The contractor will consult with key stakeholders, partners involved in current and proposed programs, and local experts. USAID will provide an initial list of prioritiy contacts. The contractor may suggest additions to this list. Note that any meetings with individuals beyond USAID/Haiti staff will require advance approval of the USAID/Haiti point of contact. Travel outside of the
USAID/Haiti mission may be restricted for security reasons. Some consultations may be conducted via telephone.

3. Participation in Mission Strategy Launch Workshop

54 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

Annex E

The contractor will attend and participate constructively in the Mission Strategy Launch
Workshop. S/he may be asked to present a brief verbal summary of the scope of work for the Assessment and of work undertaken to date.
D. Deliverables
·
·

·

Initial Bibliography (documents consulted prior to arrival in country).
Annotated Outline of Assessment. This document will serve as the basis for an oral presentation of findings and recommendations prior to departure from
Haiti.
Gender Assessment for comment by USAID. The Assessment is to include: o Basic Text (10-15 pages). Suitable to be summarized in and attached to the Strategy Statement. o Annex 1: Issues for Further Consideration. o Annex 2: List of Documents Reviewed. o Annex 3: List of Contacts.

E. Timing, Location and Level of Effort
The contractor will work in the United States and in Haiti. Work prior to arrival will address
Task 1. While in Haiti the contractor will continue Task 1 and undertake Tasks 2 and 3, undertake an analysis of the information that has been gathered through these tasks, and prepare and present initial findings (orally and in writing). After departure from Haiti the contractor will write and submit a draft report to USAID/Haiti and revise the report based on comments from USAID/Haiti. The draft report must be submitted no later than 10 calendar days after departing Haiti. USAID/Haiti will provide written comments within 5 workdays after receiving the draft. The contractor will submit the final Gender Assessment and all Annexes no later than 5 calendar days after receiving comments from the Mission.
The total level of effort (not including travel time) is estimated at 22 workdays for one person.
This includes 5 days prior to arrival, 12 workdays in-country (including the Strategy Workshop
March 3 and 4), and 5 workdays after departure.
F. Qualifications
The Gender Assessment requires the following expertise:
­
­
­
­
­

Social scientist with practical program development and/or implementation experience in a developing country setting (required)
Experience conducting gender analysis
Education: Master’s level (minimum required)
Language: French speaking and reading (3/3 level minimum required).
Haiti experience (preferred).

55 Gender Assessment
USAID/Haiti

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