INTRODUCTION

Section 1 - The importance of working as a team and a discussion on how conflict can be resolved within teams by Ian Burks

Section 2 - An exploration of different methods of dealing with conflict within an organisation

Section 3 - An evaluation of different methods of dealing with personal and work based stress

Section 4 - An evaluation of how well the group worked together and the technology used to enable this

The group considered various approaches to this assignment and discussed a number of options before deciding to focus on the movement as their case study organisation. Associations, although autonomous and independent are all affiliated to the National Councils of YMCAs and do share a common mission and similar culture. By using the generic movement each of the students can draw on extensive and varied experience from their own settings.

SECTION 1

The importance of working as a team and a discussion on how conflict can be resolved within teams

The term ‘team’ is commonly used to describe many different groups both in a work setting and within wider society. Harvey Robbins and Michael Finley define a team simply ‘as people doing something together’ and Rob Yeung says a team is a ‘group of people with shared goal’. An element of inter dependency is also required before a group becomes a team and a more organisationally orientated statement from Rover Cars defines teams as 'a number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose and set of performance goals for which they hold themselves mutually accountable'.

Teams are important and beneficial for all organisations for many reasons. First and foremost an effective team offers ‘synergy’ or the ability of the whole to be greater than the sum of its parts. This synergy allows a team to be more productive than a group of individuals working independently. A successful team has a diverse range of complementary skills, knowledge, ideas and experience that can be harnessed to achieve more and individual strengths can be used to compensate for weakness in others. This view was promoted by Meredith Belbin who devised ‘Team Role’ categories to describe the preferred team working approaches of different people in team situations (see appendix 1). She claimed that a well-balanced management team, using her team roles to define such a team, would out perform a group of high achieving individuals who possess high IQs but are ill-matched as team.

Organisation theory supports the view that teams can also save money, improve communication, make better use of resources, make higher quality decisions and lead to better quality services (Robbins and Finley 2000).

According to Bruce W. Tuckman's observations of group behaviour (see appendix 2), teams must go through a number of stages before becoming effective. These are Forming, Storming, Norming and finally performing. In the initial 2 stages group members test each other and attempt to orientate or position themselves within the group. This inevitably leads to some inter personal conflict before a balance is accepted between the team members. Only once this process has been completed can the team begin to accomplish anything. A certain amount of conflict is therefore necessary as it is a sign that there is honest communication but if conflict is not resolved it can be damaging and prevent achievement of goals.

Clear honest communication is important for successful teams but this is not as a simple as it sounds as team members in groups often hide a large proportion of what they are feeling. WR Bion developed the Iceberg Model which suggested that in some work groups only the task related thoughts (or ‘human doing and knowing’) such as projects, events, procedures were verbalised or made visible by team members and the process related thoughts (or ‘human being’) such as relationship issues, values, beliefs and prejudices, were kept hidden. This could mean as much as 90% of what a person is feeling, or being influenced by, is kept hidden from fellow team members during meetings. Any conflict evident at team meetings may manifest itself as an issue concerning ‘human doing and knowing’ but in reality is likely to stem from something below the surface such as prejudice, relationships or values. The Storming phase of team performance could be considered to be the time where the group delves into the areas under the surface and this is vital for successful performance as it enables a greater level of honesty, awareness and trust to be developed amongst team members.

A number of practical steps can be taken to prevent unnecessary conflict such as group goal setting, good communication and use of structured feedback The first step towards resolving disputes is face to face discussion and if this does not work it may be necessary to bring in a third party to mediate. Beyond this resolution may require conciliation or arbitration. These more formal methods of dealing with conflict are more applicable to organisations and will be covered in more depth in the second section of this report.

As this assignment is focussing on the YMCA it is worth examining how YMCA teams may differ from other organisations due to the culture and structure of the YMCA movement. It is known that conflict is more likely to occur in cultures where there is greater emphasis on individualistic choice.

‘Individualistic cultures place a high value on ‘autonomy, initiative, creativity, and authority in decision making’
Moore and Woodrow

The YMCA movement, as a federation of independent local associations, is structured in a highly autonomous fashion where decision making is delegated down to a local level and this independence and individual choice cascades down to staff teams. Consequently it may be argued that individuals in YMCA teams exhibit greater levels of autonomy and this may lead to higher levels of conflict.

To summarise, teams are important because they can deliver greater performance than a group of individuals working independently but it is inevitable and to certain degree healthy for there to be some conflict as this shows that a team is communicating honestly and fully. The use of tools such as Belbins team roles and Myers Briggs Type Indicators can help team members to gain a greater understanding of each other and this may accelerate the norming and storming phases of team building, leading to improved team performance.

SECTION 2
The different methods of dealing with conflict within an organisation
Professor Gregg Walker developed a table providing a sampling of various scholarly definitions of conflict (see appendix 3). Professor Walker notes: "Those definitions in the table have much in common. First, they indicate the inevitability of conflict in human affairs. Second, they reveal key features of conflict situations. Many of the definitions, for example, stress that conflicts involve interdependent parties who perceive some kind of incompatibility between them” (Williams C, 2000-2005).
Conflict may be caused by various factors – personal or work related stress, financial pressure, simple disagreements or arguments with tensions, sexual and racial harassment or insensitivity towards physical and learning difficulties, etc. Conflict may often arise with change within an organisation such as a structural or direction revision, a merger with other agencies, cut in funding or technology updates. Conflict also may be developed between organisations and external agencies, e.g. partners, funders or regulators.
If conflict is not addressed promptly and appropriately it can turn into serious disputes that can have a deteriorating affect on organisation morale, unity and services provided. Individuals will suffer from frustration, which may lead to irritability, anger, withdrawal or even stress-related illness. If conflict becomes public knowledge, fundraising can be impeded and an organisation’s public image can be badly damaged. Ultimately, the beneficiaries for whom the organisation exists can suffer deterioration in services.
Every organisation should follow good employment practice and have adequate procedures – for example grievance, disciplinary and harassment procedures along with an equal opportunities policy in place. Clearly defined, up to date and easy to understand guidelines with regards to roles and responsibilities, channels of reporting and internal communication should enable the prevention of potential conflicts.
Management should be responsible for dealing with conflicts at an initial stage, with senior management or trustees only becoming involved in accordance with the appropriate procedures. It is worth thinking about how to deal with conflict before it happens and develop some guidelines and include the option of using third parties in case of a dispute written into staff contracts. Having a complaints policy for service users in place allows organisations to deal with conflict involved service users (www.voluntarymattersland1and2.org).
Conflict is difficult to handle or manage at the best of times and very few organisations train line managers in conflict resolution skills. However most managers have to deal with conflict every working day in one form or another, though using basic guidelines and preventive measures (see appendix 4) can considerably reduce the possible destructive conflicts and help improve the overall working environment and engender an atmosphere of co-operation and support.
Any organisation experiences some sort of conflict from time to time, but in the value-led charity organisations such as YMCA there is the added dimension of emotional commitment to a cause. Hence YMCA's practice is to explore alternative conflict resolution methods such as advocacy, negotiation, mediation, conciliation, arbitration and litigation (see appendix 5) prior to formal grievance or complaints procedures.
Advocacy is where a third party intervenes, negotiates or speaks on behalf of someone else and usually it is applicable where for physical, educational or other reasons the affected person is unable to speak for themselves. Though it is not considered a dispute resolution method as such.
Negotiation is usually when two parties seek agreement between themselves; no one else involved and often involves bargaining and compromise as one side attempts to win over the other.
One of the favourite conflict resolution methods used by YMCA is mediation, which offers practical and positive ways of dealing with conflict between people. The attractiveness of mediation is that it offers new and exciting advantages over the win/lose adversarial dispute methods.
Workplace mediation is a structured process, whereby an impartial mediator enables two disputants to come together to talk, to clarify the main issues and to explore mutually acceptable solutions.
The mediator does not give advice or act as an arbitrator. It is up to the disputants themselves to find solutions, which will work for them; the mediators encourage lots of creative thinking and brainstorming to facilitate their achieving the positive end. Unlike counselling, mediation is about moving people to achieve a solution (Doherty N., 1998).
Conciliation often involves offering advice and guidance by a third party to find a solution for disputants and there is no structure or particular principle.
Unlike conciliation an Arbitrator listens to both sides and makes a decision for them, which is either binding (they must keep to this decision by law) or non-binding.
The most adversarial dispute resolution method is litigation as there is always a winner and a loser. It involves the legal process whereby the judge or magistrate listens to the case put forward by the prosecution and the defendant lawyers, and makes a final decision.
Finally to recap the section, conflict is often regarded as somewhat negative or something to be avoided. Conflict, which is well managed however, can be highly constructive and healthy – allowing differing viewpoints to be expressed and new ideas to emerge. It can therefore be beneficial to regard conflict as a challenge than an obstacle to overcome.

SECTION 3

An evaluation of different methods of dealing with personal and work based stress

The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) defines stress as ‘the adverse reaction a person has to excessive pressure or other types of demand placed upon them’ with a distinction between pressure, which can be positive, and stress, which can be damaging to health.

Causes of stress can be put into two categories; external stressors and internal stressors. External stressors tend to be based on environment whereas internal stressors can be physical problems such as illnesses or psychological issues such as worrying about something. Work can be a source of both of these kinds of stressors. Stressors can also be described as acute, a reaction to an immediate threat, and chronic, when pressures are longer lasting and stress is suppressed (Chapman A).

Stress can affect people mentally and physically. It is estimated by the HSE that work related stress costs the NHS around £3.7 billion per year. Employers have a legal duty to manage the risk of stress at work (ACAS). It has been recognised in the courts that ‘the employer’s duty of care includes a duty to take reasonable care not to subject the employee to working conditions that are reasonably foresee ably likely to cause the employee psychiatric injury or illness,’ Cross v Highlands and Islands Enterprise [2001] IRLR 336 (Slade E).

There are some ways that individuals can manage stress. If a person is feeling stressed it is valuable for them to do their own risk assessment, by stopping and thinking about the situation, planning how it can be changed to relieve stress, acting on those plans, and reviewing regularly. This method can also aid in detaching from the source of stress, enabling the individual to look at the issues from the outside. It is important that an individual recognises the causes of stress and understands their own responses to these. By increasing self-awareness of moods and triggers stress can be anticipated and steps taken to prevent it.

A healthy well-balanced diet, regular exercise and a reduction of intake of toxins such as alcohol and nicotine can all go a long way to helping to prepare and protect a person from causes of stress. In the same way, it is important to understand the influences of images on TV and film. Recent research suggests that negative images increase feelings of depression, creating negative conditioning leading to stress and anxiety, or certainly an increased vulnerability to these. Conversely, positive images can have a beneficial effect on mood (Chapman A).

One way of managing stress is taking steps to relieve stress as it is experienced. It can be useful to walk away from a stressful situation, take a break, talk to someone trusted, use relaxation techniques, meditation or get some fresh air, do something enjoyable or go somewhere quiet (Webber C and Delvin D). It is valuable for employers to understand these methods and ensure that support is given to employees to enable them to understand and use them.

The HSE have developed an approach to dealing with stress at work, Management Standards, and have defined six sources of stress at work – demands, control, support, relationships, role and change (Appendix 6). It is a good practice guide to dealing with work-related stress, explaining how each standard can be achieved, and is published in line with the government’s aim to see a 20% reduction in work-related stress by 2010 (ACAS).

If the risk of stress is an aspect of a particular job then under the Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992 a risk assessment should be made (Slade E) which can then be used as a tool for assessing the risk of any person suffering stress at work and to identify ways to minimise risk.

The HSE advises organisations to have a ‘stress policy’, designed to address the factors described above. While in itself a policy does not remove the risk of stress, it should set out how an organisation plans to reduce risk, and how issues can be dealt with should stress occur.

There are a number of ways in which stress can be dealt with in the work place, both proactive and reactive. Emotional intelligence can be measured in candidates to assess their ability to deal with a pressured work environment (Chapman A). Proactive coping is a way that individuals can prepare themselves to deal with stressful situations, something that organisations could provide training for (Greenglass E). Giving employees control over when breaks are taken allows individuals to manage their own experience of stress.

Creating a culture where colleagues treat each other with respect and consideration, most effective when this flows from the top down, is a positive preventative measure to stress arising from relationships at work. It is important that all employees are aware of policies on harassment, bullying or racism so they know how to challenge unacceptable behaviour and what backup to expect (Tighe J). Flexible working hours and systems, if practical for the organisation to incorporate, either as a planned or reactive approach, can allow employees a degree of control in their work and the pressure that they experience (HSE).

SECTION 4

Evaluation of how well the group worked together and the technology which enabled this

Rob Yeung states that teams work effectively by capitalising on the strengths and compensating for the weaknesses of the individuals within them; the key criterion of a team is for it to depend on the success or failure of the people within it.
At the beginning of the process of forming teams from the main group, the task was set by the course Tutor, who also directed the main group be split into smaller groups of 3 or 4 people. Our group were already conveniently sharing a table and it was quickly decided we would work together. During this ‘Forming’ phase, others raised concerns that smaller groups should ensure an even distribution of skills and abilities. There followed a quick assessment of Individuals previous assignment grades. At this stage, all members identified some negative feelings directed towards the forming of the smaller groups.[1]

Robbins and Finlay suggest that Bruce W. Tuckman’s group stage definition of Storming could be redefined as Clarifying through identifying: • roles and responsibilities, • sources of information, • support, • objectives, • decision-making • how often and when to meet • strengths and weaknesses (or stumbling blocks)

In reflection of this, our team set about establishing ‘ground rules’ and discussed options for approaching the objective. A sense of responsibility toward other members arose with desire not to let the overall team performance down, resulting in increased effort to create work of a high standard. The lack of conflict could be attributed to either naturally going through the process of clarifying as described above or an unspoken avoidance of conflict in the interests of completing the assignment & group harmony.
It was eventually decided to split the work into 4 sections and each member chose a section to research and complete and the first meeting date was set tentatively to discuss initial progress – the Norming Phase.
It was agreed at this stage that our separate locations and priorities would mean a reliance on communication via technology.
Robbins and Finlay discuss the idea of ‘Groupware’ and identify 4 classifications; 1. Same time/ Same place – Conventional meetings, although as it gets harder to find a time to accommodate everyone technology is taking over. However, a handheld ‘voting’ remote enables members to vote on issues honestly. 2. Same time/ Different place – Two way video, screen sharing, live online chat boards, faxes, tele-conferencing. 3. Different time/ Same place – e.g. shift patterns, emails, message books, other communication tools within the office 4. Different time/ Different place – Voicemail, Internet, Microsoft network

In the performance of our objective, our team has used a combination of the conventional meeting, emails and phone calls. Although the meeting proved to be useful in terms of re-affirming the sense of being part of a team, sharing information sources (reference books) and setting deadlines for work to be submitted for team review, it was also a less efficient use of time as the length of the meeting proved to be less than the amount of time travelled to attend.
The majority of communication has relied on the email system, enabling contact at different times and different places e.g. evenings, weekends, at home or at work.
In place of further meetings, conference calls were set up via a free website so that the review of the work done so far could happen at the same time without travel time and costs but performing a similar function to the conventional meeting.
During this Performing stage, key criterion is co-operation of all team members, openness, trust and mutual support. This was evident through the constant checking that all members could meet the deadlines, offers for extensions or help with research if not and suggestions for mutually convenient times to review progress; defined by Rob Yeung as indicators of a good team in measuring its results. Sometimes resulting in several email messages until a happy agreement was reached. However, it is noticeable that the more personal contact – physical meeting & telephone conference calls, had a greater impact on how the task progressed.

Throughout this process, the question has frequently arisen over whether it was a ‘team’ assignment or ‘group’ assignment. Rob Yeung, Robbins & Finlay and others define the ‘team’ as a group with a single objective where each individual contribution affects the overall success of the main objective; this doesn’t rely on location of the individual members.
The final Mourning phase may mean sadness or relief at getting the job done and some excitement at preparing to rejoin the main group. This may mean a final meeting to ‘debrief’ on any outstanding issues within the team before finally disbanding.

In summary, this evaluation has shown that however the team ‘do’ the task itself, the ‘how’ shows itself in the manifest of team behaviours which, although may be experienced only briefly, cannot be avoided altogether.
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[1] See Personal Reflections