...chapters. In this chapter of Expert Testimony of Eyewitness Memory and Identification, this author purpose is summarize the role of these eyewitness experts play in the courts. In summary, eyewitness is often the sole source of evidence for determining who the perpetrator is however, in United States, about 4,500 wrongful convictions occurred based on mistaken eyewitness identifications...
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...“Eyewitness evidence is one of the earliest and widely studied topics in forensic psychology” (Pozzulo, Bennell, & Forth, 2015, p. 123). Eyewitness testimony is very diverse and is becoming increasingly influential during court proceedings, which leads to many wrongful convictions. A specific topic that will be investigated during this paper will be the use of independent variables aiding eyewitness testimonies. In 1978, Wells divided those independent eyewitness cues into estimator and system variables (Leach, Cutler, & Van Wallendael, 2009, p.160). Estimator variables occur at the crime scene while the eyewitness is encoding the event into their memory; these are not controlled by the criminal justice system (Leach, Cutler, & Van Wallendael,...
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...of wrongful convictions nationwide, with nearly 75% of the convictions overturned through DNA testing. There have been 260 exonerations across the country based on forensic DNA testing with 3 out of 4 involving cases of eyewitness misidentification. (Innocence Project 1999) In 1907 or 1908, Hugo Munsterberg published “On the Witness Stand”; he questioned the reliability of eyewitness identification. As recent as 30 or 40 years ago, the Supreme Court acknowledged that eyewitness identification is problematic and can lead to wrongful convictions. The Supreme Court instructed lower courts to determine the validity of eyewitness testimony based on irrelevant factors, like the certainty of the witness, the certainty you express in court during the trial has nothing to do with how certain you feel two days after the event when you pick a photograph out of a set or pick the suspect out of a lineup. It has been said that you become more certain over time. (The Confidential Resource September 15, 2010) An eyewitness viewing a simultaneous lineup tends to make a judgment about which individual in the lineup looks most like the perpetrator relative to the other members of the lineup. This is particularly problematic when a lineup only contains innocent people. Research has shown that the effective use of fillers when composing a lineup can help combat the tendency for the relative judgment process to lead to the identification of an...
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...often necessary to look to other sources, such as an eyewitness, to help settle a trial (Smarlarz & Wells, 2014). This can be problematic due to a number of reasons, the first being that eyewitness testimonies have been increasingly proven, such as through DNA evidence, that the defendant is often misidentified (Innocence Project, 2014). There has been abundant research conducted into false identifications and studies have found, due to numerous reasons including age, bias, gender, cognitive ability and current state, that error rates tend to be quite high...
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...VALIDATION Human memory has been on many occasions compared to the operations of a computer on the basis of their multifunctional systems. Memory is critical and plays a central role in our everyday information processes. Several models of information processes have in-time being proposed. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model (1968) is the most popular is and widely used by many memory researchers. The model indicates the transfer of information from the environment into the sensory memory which is very brief that some information is forgotten before it reaches the second storage. Short-term memory is the second temporary store which is also fragile. The short-term memory is very similar to working memory responsible for higher cognitive functioning which is also temporary. Information is then finally encoded onto the long-term memory where it is assumed to be a permanent storage for longer periods. Baddeley (2000) proposed the episodic buffer as the new forth component of the working memory model. This model was initially proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) with three components, the central executive assisted by the phonological loop and the visuo-sketchpad assumed to be temporary storage faculties. The episodic buffer is assumed to play a very central role of binding features into objects and it is assumed to be a temporary limited store which links all systems together for the purposes of multi-dimensional coding (Baddeley, Allen and Hitch, 2011). This was the initial role of the central...
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...of three videos. The three videos were the same, with the exception of an object being manipulated. Conclusions were based on how much detail participants were able to recall about the target. Older adults remembered fewer details about the target’s appearance than children and young adults. The results suggest that older adults would take longer focusing on an object that is out of context, therefore, not focusing on the perpetrator, resulting in fewer details remembered. Eyewitness and the Weapon Focus Effect in children compared to the elderly Many people have been convicted of crimes that they did not commit. Eyewitness testimony is one of the major causes for these wrong convictions. At least 75% of wrongful convictions are the result of inaccurate eyewitness identification (Innocent Project, 2009). Before the public became aware of the large amount of wrongful convictions, psychology researchers were already aware of the problem of memory and eyewitness testimony (Douglas, & Steblay, 2006). DNA testing has helped innocent people that have been convicted, proved their innocence and at the same time it has helped proved what researchers have claim for at least 30, years (Innocence Project, 2009). Eyewitnesses play a very important role in the criminal justice process....
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...Recognized by the American Psychological Association as a specialization as recently as 2001, forensic psychology remains one of the newest branches of applied psychology practiced today. Forensic psychology is broadly regarded as encompassing the research endeavor, involving studies of witness memory, jury decision, criminal behavior, etc., along with the professional practice within or in consultation with the legal system; the two may be viewed in contrast as the production of forensic knowledge versus its application. Forensic psychology may involve either civil or criminal law, and considers various applications including courtroom testimony, child custody evaluations, law enforcement candidate screening, treatment of offenders in correctional facilities, research and theory building with respect to criminal behavior, and the design and implementation of intervention and prevention programs for youthful offenders. All of these applications and more are commonly divided into four general areas of forensic psychology: legal psychology, correctional psychology, police psychology, and criminal...
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...simplypsychology.org http://www.simplypsychology.org/a-level-memory.html A-level Psychology Memory Revision By Saul McLeod The Multi-Store Model AO1 The multistore model of memory was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin and is a structural model. They proposed that memory consisted of three stores: sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Information passes from store to store in a linear way. Both STM and LTM are unitary stores. Sensory memory is the information you get from your sense, your eyes and ears. When attention is paid to something in the environment it is then converted to short-term memory. If any information is not important then it decays or disappears. Once in the short term memory informed can be rehearsed and some information is rehearsed and then passed into long term memory. Each store has its own characteristics in terms of encoding, capacity and duration. Encoding is the way information is changed so that it can be stored in the memory. There are three main ways in which information can be encoded (changed): 1. Visual (picture), 2. Acoustic (sound), 3. Semantic (meaning). Capacity concerns how much information can be stored. Duration refers to the period of time information can last in the memory stores. Sensory Register • Duration: ¼ to ½ second • Capacity: all sensory experience (v. larger capacity) • Encoding: sense specific (e.g. different stores for each sense) Short Term Memory • Duration:...
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... | 6 | | 7 | | TOTAL | | General Certificate of Education Advanced Subsidiary Examination January 2013 Psychology (Specification A) PSYA1 Unit 1 Cognitive Psychology, Developmental Psychology and Research Methods Thursday 10 January 2013 1.30 pm to 3.00 pm You will need no other materials. Time allowed 1 hour 30 minutes Instructions Use black ink or black ball-point pen. Fill in the boxes at the top of this page. Answer all questions. You must answer the questions in the spaces provided. Do not write outside the box around each page or on blank pages. Do all rough work in this book. Cross through any work you do not want to be marked. Information The marks for questions are shown in brackets. The maximum mark for this paper is 72. Question 7 should be answered in continuous prose. You may use the space provided to plan your answer. In Question 7, you will be assessed on your ability to: – use good English – organise information clearly – use specialist vocabulary where appropriate. (JAn13psyA101) G/T87042 6/6/6/ PSYA1 Section A Cognitive Psychology and Research Methods Answer all questions in the spaces provided. Total for this question: 4 marks 1 Research has suggested that the encoding and capacity of short-term memory are different from the encoding and capacity of long-term memory. 1 (a) Explain what is meant by encoding. The way in which information is stored...
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...Issues such as suggestibility, the effects of individual differences and the effects of long delays on their recall have been brought up and discussed in these studies. (Memon, Vrij & Bull, 2006) Traditionally, most Criminal Justice Systems have been reluctant to accept the testimony of young children, believing that they make less reliable witnesses than adults do. Although in recent years the balance has shifted and the evidence of children is now much more likely to be accepted. (Ainsworth, 1998) All witnesses defined as a child at the date of the trial, and irrespective of the nature of the offence, are automatically classified as vulnerable and this eligible for a range of protective special measures to enable them to give a testimony in court. There special measures include in-court screens, live TV link, removal of wigs and gowns and provision of any necessary aids to communication. (Raitt, 2007) The issue of children’s competency to testify in court has changed from the presumption that no minor is competent to the belief that all children are competent, which also means that a child can be compelled to testify whether voluntarily or not. Donaldson et al (1983, cited in Spencer & Flin, 1993) believed that much of the research carried out in the first half of the century seemed to have been curiously preoccupied with children’s incapacities. This traditional assumption of childhood incompetence may have stemmed from a historical tendency...
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...from Core Study 1 High levels of control in laboratory conditions Baron-Cohen they were able to select participants with the desired characteristics and maintain a standard procedure. By controlling variables, cause and effect can be established, in this case the effect that autism and AS have on theory on mind skills 2 May be able to help those with cognitive problems and may lead to practical applications for teaching/treatment For example the study by Loftus and palmer offers us an insight into the factors that can affect the reliability of eyewitness testimony, in particular the use of leading questions in interviews which can distort a witness’s memory of an event. This could prove vital for police questioning techniques. 3 Increases our understanding of cognitive abilities For example, Baron-Cohen’s study, he has demonstrated how autistic people are not able to conceive of what other people are feeling as easily as non-autistic people i.e. not capable of ‘mind reading’. This is shown because the autistic/AS participants scored less well on the eye task than the non-autistic sample. This is useful research because it can help people know how best to communicate with and treat autistic children. Weaknesses of COGNITIVE approach Example from Core Study 1 Laboratory research may have low ecological validity For example in the study by Loftus and Palmer films car crashes were used as it would have been difficult to stage realistic crashes in a laboratory setting. As a...
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...scenarios. In addition, this paper further discusses the established sequence of necessary conditions to support the validity of prosocial behavior in reference to bystander effect. In conclusion, relating the conditions of the survey for reliability and to evaluate whether or not the methods discussed measures and are confirmed through the internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and support an inter-source agreement. Experimental Method Design The bystander effect is a psychological episode in social psychology that connects with incidents when individuals refuse to assist in an emergency situation when others are nearby. In the past, the probability of help as been believed to be involving oppositely affected variables comparable to the number of bystanders, for instance, the more bystanders, the least likely anyone will help. John M. Darley was the first social psychologist to make obvious the bystander effect. In this experience, an emergency situation is thespian, and the participants are alone or in a group. The experiment will assess the duration of time for the participants to act or to avoid interfering in the situation. The most popular illustration in introductory psychology textbooks of the bystander effect is the vicious slaying of a female named Catherine "Kitty" Genovese. There exist two factors why groups in bystanders’ effect refuse to take action in a crisis; the...
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...Twelve Angry Men by Reginald Rose Structure, Language and Genre Structure • Twelve Angry Men follows a two-act structure, with the action running continuously rather than being broken into scenes. The second acts takes up exactly where the first left off – there is no change in chronology. • With no scene divisions, the progress of the play can be measured by the votes which take place, functioning as a kind of pulse, reminding the audience where the jury’s opinion stands on the defendant’s conviction. These moments serve as markers for the audience on the journey through the play, helping to structure the action. • The play follows the three classical unities of theatre derived from Aristotle: - Unity of action: there should be only one central plot (the jury’s deliberations and decisions). - Unity of time: In real and continuous time where there are no shifts in chronology (no breaks in play). - Unity of place: Action occurs in only one single location (the jury room). • Allows the audience to feel very close to characters, their relationships and the conflict and challenges with which they are faced in deciding the defendant’s fate. • Intensifies sense of realism and is particularly effective because of the claustrophobic nature of the setting. Language • Rose’s characters use naturalistic, everyday language appropriate to the times and for the audience. • Heightened poetic or symbolic language is rarely used, instead speaking in concrete terms about the...
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...PSYCHOLOGY and your life chapter 1 introduction to ps ychology 2 chapter outline A Gift of Life It was every subway rider’s nightmare, times two. Who has ridden along New York’s 656 miles of subway lines and not wondered: “What if I fell to the tracks as a train came in? What would I do?” And who has not thought: “What if someone else fell? Would I jump to the rescue?” Wesley Autrey, a 50-year-old construction worker and navy veteran, faced both those questions in a flashing instant yesterday and got his answers almost as quickly. Mr. Autrey was waiting for the downtown local at 137th Street and Broadway in Manhattan around 12:45 p.m. He was taking his two daughters, Syshe, 4, and Shuqui, 6, home before work. Nearby, a man collapsed, his body convulsing. Mr. Autrey and two women rushed to help, he said. The man, Cameron Hollopeter, 20, managed to get up, but then stumbled to the platform edge and fell to the tracks, between the two rails. The headlights of the No. 1 train appeared. “I had to make a split decision,” Mr. Autrey said. So he made one, and leapt. Mr. Autrey lay on Mr. Hollopeter, his heart pounding, pressing him down in a space roughly a foot deep. The train’s brakes screeched, but it could not stop in time. Five cars rolled overhead before the train stopped, the cars passing inches from his head, smudging his blue knit cap with grease. Mr. Autrey heard onlookers’ screams. “We’re O.K. down here,” he yelled, “but I’ve got two daughters up there...
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...The PsychSim5 Activities PsychSim 5: PSYCHOLOGY’S TIMELINE Name: Abdul Hasssan Section: 6 Date: This activity will take you on a tour through the history of psychology. You will learn how psychology grew out of philosophy and medical physiology, and will become acquainted with some of the pioneers of psychology as a scientific discipline. Famous Psychologists Can you think of any famous psychologists from psychology’s history? The Early History: Philosophers and Scientists Match each of the philosophers and scientists with their descriptions AND write in the approximate year of their contribution. ______ Aristotle (______) 320 b.c. A. British philosopher, empiricist ______ Darwin (______) 360 b.c. B. Greek philosopher, nativist ______ Descartes (______) 1600 C. British biologist ______ Helmholz (______) 1700 D. German physiologist ______ Locke (______) 1830 E. French philosopher, nativist, and dualist ______ Plato (______) 1860 F. Greek philosopher, empiricist Pioneers of Psychology Match each of the pioneers of psychology with their descriptions AND write in the approximate year of their main contribution. ______ Calkins (______) 1879 A. Studied memory ______ Ebbinghaus (______) 1882 B. First psychotherapy ______ Freud (______) 1885 C. First lab in USA ______ Hall (______) 1888 D. Used introspection ______ James (______) 1890 E. First comprehensive textbook ...
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