During the Late Middle Ages, the disease later known as The Black Death caused great losses. It is considered to be the worst plague suffered in Europe, but which were the steps that led to it? Historians agree that famines, floods, poor life conditions, overpopulation and ships navigating longer distances were its main causes. The disease attacked many times, and had a great impact on both economy and society.
The depression left by the Black Death was only aggravated by the schism of the Church, which lead to confusion and general lack of faith.
Below, I will analyse both events in detail, stating both their causes and consequences.

The Black Death

Causes
Before the plague struck England, the economic situation in which the peasants were immerse could be defined as anything but favourable. During the first decade of the fourteenth century, inflation affected the price of grain, livestock, and other essential products.
Weather was not on the peasant’s side either. England was suffering what was later called a transition from the Medieval Warm Period to the Little Ice Age. The century began with torrential rains, which ruined entire crops of wheat, oat and hay. People could hardly produce enough to keep up with the rising prices, and feeding the animals became an almost impossible task to perform. Transporting food from distant places was both very hard and expensive. To crown it all, peasants had overspecialized in single crops in the previous decades. This system seemed to be more practical, but it left population in a very vulnerable position when crops failed for some common reason.
From 1302 to 1348, the English people suffered at least twenty bad harvests. In addition to this, a disease hit cattle and sheep, reducing herds and flocks considerably. The growth that population had experienced in the previous century became a major disadvantage. Not even after the epidemic of typhoid fever that carried away thousands did the food become sufficient to the whole country.
The level of sanitation that the authorities had managed to achieve at the time was very primitive. Storms and floods left the streets filled with mud and excrement. Dead animals were to be found anywhere, especially cats and dogs. Actually, the well-known saying ‘it’s raining cats and dogs’ finds its origin in those times were it rained so much that one could see dead animals floating down the flooded streets.
Cities were overcrowded. It was not uncommon for a middle-class or poor family of six to eight persons to sleep in the same room, often in the same bed. Apart from being cheaper, sharing the mattress would provide warmth, something naturally needed during the long and cold winters.
The body of an average English person would be weakened not only by common colds and poor personal hygiene, but also by the lack of nutritive food.

Origin
Experts disagree in regard to the place where the plague started. Some hold that it originated in China or Central Asia around 1331 and spread due to the constant movement of merchants and soldiers, while others believe that the disease was endemic in Southern Russia. However, they all agree that it spread from Crimea to Mediterranean Lands and western Europe after 1346.
Shortly after the Genoese defeated the Moroccans opening the Strait of Gibraltar, Italy was making great progress in the field of navigation. The design of the Italian merchant ships was altered to carry not only one, but three masts. As a consequence, wind was better utilised, and year-round shipping became possible for the first time.
Later research done by scientists on the matter has revealed that the bacillus that caused the disease (later named Pasteurella Pestis) liked to live in the bloodstream of an animal or in the stomach of a flea, which resided in the skin of small rodents. Although it has been determined that the main carrier of the disease was the common black rat, experts have failed to explain why they travelled so much. Rats could live almost anywhere and often did so on ships. Once they had feasted on the grain that was being transported, after months of living among sailors, they would descend on the ports of the greatest European cities.

Society’s reaction during the plague
It was very difficult for people in the Middle Ages to understand and confront a disease like The Black Death. No effective medical treatment was known. Physicians could sometimes ease the pain, and even hospitals were at sea in regard with this disease. All they could do was offer shelter and comfort to the sick.
Myths and superstitions began to grow around the infection. Some people even blamed the Jews, claiming that they had poisoned the wells of Christian communities and infected the drinking water. Most people thought, however, that the plague had been sent by God to punish all sinners on Earth.
Although the disease was thought to be carried by some “vicious property in the air”, there were a few who noticed that it spread more effectively in overpopulated areas. As a consequence, they fled to the country.

Consequences
Due to the lack of reliable sources, it is hard to calculate exactly how many lives did the plague take. Historians, however, estimate that by the year 1352 over 25 million people had died victims of the disease. The death-rate in Great Britain (30%) is higher than the one the country showed after World War I.
The Statute of the Labourer was an immediate consequence of the diminishing population. At that time, an agreement through which the lords excused their peasants from their duties in exchange for a money-rent was often signed. Peasants could then work on their own lands and sell their surplus produce to pay their lords, who would use this money to hire labourers for so much as a day. This proved to be more effective and beneficial for both parts.
Once the plague struck, landlords found it very difficult to find workers willing to be hired. There were few independent workers left, and the few who remained alive had lost a great deal of motivation. Although it was not regulated by a formal law, common customs stated that elevating prices taking advantage of the circumstances was nearly a crime. Workers, however, decided to ignore this because the situation had no precedents. They demanded wages two or three times higher than the ones they used to ask for.
The few measures taken by the government, according to historians, were in favour of the wealthier classes. If we take this into account, it is not surprising that the parliament passed, in 1351, a Statute that forbade anyone either to ask or to pay more than the old wages. The Statute of Labourers proved, of course, impossible to be carried into effect. In fact, it is though to be one of the main events that triggered the Peasant’s Revolt years later.
The plague did not have a disastrous effect on the economy. On the contrary, it restored the long lost balance between labour, land and capital. With less people to feed, harvests produced enough to feed the reduced population. Documents show that by the year 1375 most landlords were collecting revenues similar to the ones they did during the pre-plague times.
On the other hand, the psychological consequences were much darker. People found themselves immerse in the most profound pessimism. They lived with fear, and were in contact with sickness and death everyday. Since the plague was seen as divine punishment by most of them, people assumed that there was nothing they could do to fight it. They accepted the affliction and lost the perspective of their futures. A few sought comfort in religion, but many had lost their faith in God and mainly in the Catholic Church, so they involved themselves in orgies and other sinful activities.
Death became a main issue in the life of every inhabitant. The change that occurred in people’s mind can easily be seen through literature and art, which acquired a very dark and morbid aspect after the plague.

The Great Schism

Background
Long before the fourteenth century, the catholic church began to acquire a certain amount of power inconvenient for kings. However, it was not until the year 1309 that Philip the Fair of France succeeded in moving the Papacy from Rome to Avignon. From that moment on, he had more control over the church and its policies. Clement V, who was the Pope at that time, is thought to have agreed to this measure mainly because his severe illness had weakened his will and judgement.
This period of time is polemically known as ‘The Babylonian Captivity’. There were seven Popes who resided in Avignon before the Papacy was moved back to Rome: ▪ Pope Clement V (1305-1314) ▪ Pope John XXII (1316-1334) ▪ Pope Benedict XII (1334-1342) ▪ Pope Clement VI (1342-1352) ▪ Pope Innocent VI (1352-1362) ▪ Pope Urban V (1362-1370) ▪ Pope Gregory XI (1370-1378)
During this period, Popes concerned themselves mainly with bourocratic business. It is thought that they lived surrounded by luxury and extravagance, diverged from the spiritual path that had been laid for them.
Many Christians urged the Popes to return to Rome, not only because the government lacked stability without the Papacy, but also because the papal court attracted tourists that contributed considerably with the city’s economic growth.

Causes
After 67 years of captivity, Pope Gregory XI managed to bring the Papacy back to Rome. He died shortly after achieving this goal, and the cardinals were pressured by the roman citizens to elect a roman Pope who would remain in the city. After two debates, Bartolomeo Pignano was unanimously chosen. He adopted the name of Urban VI.
Although Urban’s actions were well-intended, many historians nowadays question his sanity. He was a very short-tempered, aggressive man. In order to restore faith in the Church among Europeans once again, he wanted to abolish the main abuses that were being criticised by them. His impulsive measures, however, triggered opposition among priests and cardinals before his authority was consolidated.
In small groups, important members of the clergy fled from Rome to Agnani. Being personally affected by Urban’s policies, they declared his election invalid, claiming that they had been pressured by the citizens of Rome. They excommunicated him, and elected Cardinal Robert of Geneva to occupy his position. The new french Pope adopted the name of Clement VII.
That was the beginning of the schism. There were then two Popes: Urban VI in Rome, and the so-called antipope Clement VII in Avignon.

Political repercussions
European cities divided themselves in two major groups: those in favour of Urban, and those in favour of Clement.
France chose the antipope’s side for obvious reasons. Scotland found it convenient to take his side too, so that France would continue supporting the numerous attacks on England. Aragon, Castile and Portugal also decided for the french Pope. Even the Italian city-states preferred him, after being alienated by Urban.
The emperor and England, who held ancient hostility against France, opted for Urban.

Controversial Ideas
There were two very important scholars, whose views had strong consequences in both the political and the economic aspects of society.
Marsiglio of Padua, rector of the University of Paris, published in 1324 his Defensor Pacis. This piece is considered to be one of the most polemic works ever to be published during the Middle Ages. Marsiglio argued that the Church should be subordinated to the State, have no inherent jurisdiction and own no property. He thought that the authority of the Pope had to be regulated by a council conformed by both priests and laymen.
John Wyclif, English scholar and theologian, was also a very controversial character during the medieval times. He began by postulating the idea that the Church needed to return to the simple life of poverty and devotion. He argued that wealth and luxury were affecting the clergy’s judgement and relationship with God.
Later, Wyclif reached the conclusion that God’s will was written in the Bible. This document, then, had to be translated to English, so that everyone could read it. According to his ideas, religion was about inward experiences of the soul, and not an affair of forms and ceremonies. Sinners could achieve forgiveness by praying and meditating: they didn’t need priests to act as a bridge between them and God.
Both ideas (Marsiglio’s and Wyclif’s) were declared heretical by the Church. Wyclif’s view on the matter, however, was taken up with enthusiasm in Oxford. Humble priests preached and spread his word. He also postulated that women should be allowed to preach and to consecrate the Eucharist (Holy Communion). Many of his followers (who called themselves Lollards) were, as a consequence, educated women. After he retired to his rectory at Lutterworth, his ideas continued to be spread by John Hus, rector of the University of Prague.

The Conciliar Movement
After decades of ignoring the people’s need for a single Church, both groups of cardinals summoned a council in Pisa, in the year 1409. Both Popes were deposed, and a new one was elected by a group of prelates and theologians. This measure did not, however, put an end to the schism. Since neither Urban nor Clement agreed to resign, the event resulted in three Popes instead of two, all claiming to be the rightful representantative of God in Earth.
This conflict was not solved until 1417 when, mainly because of the German emperor’s insistance, a great council met at the imperial city of Constance.
The council had, in theory, three main objectives: ▪ To end the schism. ▪ To reform the church in a drastic way. ▪ To wipe out heresy.
It achieved its first goal, by deposing both Urban V and the Pope that had been selected in Pisa and isolating Clement. They elected the Roman cardinal Colonna to perform the holy duties, and he took the name Martin V.
The council also condemned the Lollard ideas spread by John Hus, and he was burned at the stake for being considered a representative of heresy.
The reform of the church was never considered, and one of the first measures taken by Martin V after being elected was to disolve the council.

Consequences
Although the Church did not reform itself at all, the idea that changes were necessary was stated. Decades of schism made obvious the fact that Catholisism was getting weaker.
As an immediate consequence of Wyclif’s ideas, the Bible was translated to English, published and widely distributed. This shows that his ideas affected society and obligued the Church to admit that the Holy Scriptures were meant to be read by everyone.

The Late Middle Ages ended with Europe’s population reduced to almost half of what it was before the plague. Although there was a certain custom of generosity towards the others, most people lived in poverty. The government had no plans whatsoever, and the peasant’s uprisings were something to be seen everyday.
To crown it all, people had lost their faith in the Catholic Church. This was due, firstly, to the Babylonian Captivity. They no longer felt close to the Pope, since he and his cardinals no longer played an important role to Europe. With the schism of the Church, peasants, landlords and merchants found themselves at sea. They did not know which of the Popes to follow, and they did not understand the inner conflicts of the Church.
This general changes in society, together with the developments in arts and music, is what most historians consider to be the end of the Middle Ages, and the transition to the modern era.

Bibliography

▪ McKay, Hill & Buckler. A History of Western Society, Chapter 12 “The Crisis of the Later Middle Ages”, Hougaton-Mifflin, 1995. ▪ Rayner, R. A Concise History of Britain, Chapter XIV “Edward III in Peace”, 1956. ▪ Duby, G. Año 1000, año 2000. La huella de nuestros miedos. Santiago de Chile, 1995. ▪ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death ▪ http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/black_01.shtml ▪ http://www.themiddleages.net/plague.html ▪ http://atheism.about.com/library/glossary/western/bldef_greatschismwest.htm ▪ http://www.middle-ages.org.uk/the-great-schism.htm

Micaela A. Masalías

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[pic]

This painting is known as ‘Totentanzt’ (literally meaning Dance of the Dead), andi t was painted by Bernt Notke, one of the most important german painters during the the period.
‘Totentanzt’ shows how Death reaches all social classes. Popes, priests, artesans and women are depicted together with skeletons.