Russell Kirk, an American political theorist, moralist, historian, social critic, literary critic, and fiction author was a major influence to modern conservatism. While he produced many quality pieces, he is best known for his most famous work, The Conservative Mind. According to modern conservatsists, Kirk’s novel was a heavily influential piece that ultimately shaped conservatism in the late twentieth and twenty-first centuries. He really pinpointed the exact morals behind conservatism, pulling proposals and theories from other great conservatist minds. Russell Kirk’s The Conservative Mind truly captured the journey of conservatism, proving that with a foundation of tradition and the main ideals, nothing can knock down a conservatist, and nothing will every change them.
In the very first chapter, Kirk devotes a few pages to what he views as the pain ideas behind conservatism. Known as Kirk’s canons, he proposes six statements that he feels best represent conservatism. The first canon, “Belief in a transcendent order, or body of natural law, which rules society as well as conscience. Political problems, at bottom, are religious and moral problems. A narrow rationality, what Coleridge called the Understanding, cannot of itself satisfy human needs. ‘every Tory is a realist,’ says Keith Feiling: ‘he knows that there are great forces in heaven and earth that man’s philosophy cannot plumb or fathom.’ True politics is the art of apprehending and applying the Justice which ought to prevail in a community of souls.”(Kirk, 8). This canon implies that society is naturally supposed to have social classes. There is a transcendent order and natural law. The second canon, “Affection for the proliferating variety and mystery of human existence, as opposed to the narrowing uniformity, egalitarianism, and utilitarian aims or most radical system; conservatives resit what Robert Graves calls ‘Logicalism’ in society. This prejudice has been called ‘the conservatism of enjoyment’ – a sense that life is worth living, according to Walter Baghot ‘the proper source of an animated conservatism.” (Kirk, 9). This second canon implies that everyone is different; there is a variety for human existence. The third canon, “Conviction that civilized society requires order and classes, as against the notion of a ‘classless society.’ With reason, conservatives have often been called ‘the party of order.’ If natural distinctions are effaced among men, oligarchs fill the vacuum. Ultimate equality in the judgment of God, and equality before courts of law, are recognized by conservatives; but equality of condition, they think, means equality in servitude and boredom.” (Kirk, 9). This canon conveys that everyone is different and unequal in all aspects other than before God. Classes emphasize natural distinctions, but do not matter in divine judgment. The fourth canon, “Persuasion that freedom and property are closely linked: separate property from private possession, and Leviathan becomes master of all. Economic leveling, they maintain, is not economic progress.” (Kirk, 10). This canon states that every individual works for what they get. The harder a man works, the more success he gains. In addition, property and freedom are closely linked. In the fifth canon, “Faith in prescription and distrust of ‘sophisters, calculators and economists’ who would reconstruct society upon abstract designs. Custom, convention, and old prescription are checks both upon man’s anarchic impulse and upon the innovator’s lust for power.” (Kirk, 10). This canon implies that a basic understanding should be, in short, do not fix what is not broken. Faith in custom, convention, and prescription will create a foundation. The sixth, and last, canon states “Recognition that change may not be salutary reform: hasty innovation may be a devouring conflagration, rather than a torch of progress. Society must alter, for prudent change is the means for social preservation; but a statesman must take Providence into his calculations, and a statesman’s chief virtue, according to Plato and Burke, is prudence.” (Kirk, 11). This canon means that even though the conservative way is opposed to change, people should keep an open mind. Sometimes change is good. However, only change what needs to be altered, and proceed with caution at all times. These canons are the pillars on which conservatism stands.
Kirk devotes the second chapter to the father of modern conservatism, Edmund Burke. Burke, an Irish native, best known for his loyal service to Britain’s government during the French Revolution. As a member of Parliament, he was an affiliate of the Whig Party. Which indicates his ideals included those of a conservatist. One strong characteristic Burke held, as a leader was his devotion to his beliefs and his readiness to defend his country’s government in order to protect his people. He was against any government that posed a threat to the traditional way of life. Although he was an opponent of radical ways, he understood change was inevitable and acknowledged positive outcomes were in fact possible. Simultaneously he held a firm belief that reform must be handled with caution, or it could backfire and destroy the existing foundation. Burke produced many written works during his time. His most famous piece Reflections on the Revolution in France, focused on the philosophical side of conservatism. Through Reflections of the Revolution of France, Burke warned the Britons that life, liberty and fraternity was becoming an increasing popular concept. This particular idea was one, which could potentially restrain conservatism. Kirk agrees with Burke and his forewarning of upcoming popular radical movements. Shifting gears slightly, Kirk continues to focus on Burke, beginning to glance at his religious views. Religion plays a great role in shaping beliefs and morals. Therefore, Burke’s religion corresponds to his conservative stance. Burke believed that in order to understand and know the state, it is critical to first recognize man spiritually. Meaning one must become acquainted with religious morals of society in order to make an impact politically. Burke’s religious devotion goes hand in hand with his political philosophy views. According to Burke, government officials are not figureheads sent to represent the public. In his eyes, government was responsible for creating a moral, steady, foundation, which would stand strong for future generations. Kirk strongly agrees with Burke’s view of government, especially the idea that the key to a position of power rests with the concept of understanding true responsibility. Burke believed that the church’s ideals and morals were extremely vital in order to have a strong, safe, society. Burke firmly believed that Church and state went hand in hand in all aspects, and that society could not function without both. Kirk now begins to focus on Burke’s ideals of prescription, tradition, and customs, in order to preserve the social status quo. Tradition is the key to peace and a strong society. Burke, while dedicated to moral reason, was very skeptical of a society relying on the public to honestly and religiously follow moral concepts. Burke knew a nation built on this idea would surely self-destruct. He was a proponent of having the public follow customs and traditions in order to keep an orderly society. If changes were made at will, society would crumble and future generations would not have a strong foundation, let alone a foundation at all. Kirk stresses that he strongly agrees with Burke’s influential words regarding a constantly changing society, “men would become no better than the flies of summer.”(Kirk , 17). In short Burke is implying that a society that does not build a foundation of tradition and history, the society will be as weak and short-lived as a seasonal fly. Kirk makes it very clear, that while Burke and other conservatives oppose random radical actions, it does not mean the concept of change should be opposed all together. He believes that change is occasionally necessary, and when properly introduced, can result in a positive outcome. Burke believes the formula to achieve positive change is pillared on slow, thorough, patching and polishing of the pre-existing foundation, but only when it is needed. This chapter relates to Kirk’s fifth and sixth canon of conservatism. In addition, chapter two establishes the origin of Kirk’s beliefs and his flawless image of conservatism, Edmund Burke.
In the third chapter Kirk shifts his focus from solely Burke to some of the first American followers of conservatism. Kirk dubs the title, founder of true conservatism in America, to none other than John Adams. This foreshadows the role Adams will play in Kirk’s third chapter Kirk turns his attention now to John Adams. Kirk points out that he really enjoys Adams’ ideas especially since it is side by side with Burke’s. Kirk expresses how devoted Adams was to many of Burke’s political principles. Natural rights, was a concept that Adam’s heavily supported. He believed that by birth, there is a natural hierarchy of humanity. This hierarchy, or system of classes, is not determined by individual success, but instead by the inequality bestowed at birth. It is believed that each human being is born with distinct qualities. Some examples include natural talent, intelligence, and advantages. While Adam’s believed in a natural social hierarchy by birth, this concept proved irrelevant while standing before God. He explained that all men are viewed as equals when it comes to divine judgment. Kirk, while agreeing with the natural rights theory, explains that although this is a conservative ideal, many people misread the actual meaning. Kirk provides the explanation that natural aristocrats are born with the talent, intelligence, and advantage, and that it had no connection to environment, resources, and luck. In short, some people are born with natural advantages, from a high intellectual quotient, to physical structure. These people are considered natural born leaders. Kirk stresses that this does not mean leadership is limited to these individuals. He explains how many people assumed natural aristocrats were those born into wealthy, preexisting first class families with power and access to resources. Kirk expresses this statement is false and that natural aristocrats can be born into any environment and still posses their advantages. He admits the existence of natural born advantages is an unstoppable occurrence, whether society agrees with it or not. Kirk begins to talk about the French native, Turgot. This man and his views were extremely opposed by Adams. Turgot argued that society could smoothly function based solely on the ideal that man is responsible for his own actions to improve society. He states this because he believed that conservatives were destroying society and their freewill by putting law before liberty. Kirk argues that in a society where laws precede liberty, structure is the backbone of which order is based. Chapter four explains the foundation of Kirk’s first, second, and third canon
In the fourth chapter Kirk rewinds back to Europe. Paying special attention to Romantics and Utilitarianism. Russell Kirk is a man of understanding, and attempts to view situations from both sides. He disagrees with many people throughout history and his own lifetime. However, out of everyone he disagrees with, he reaches a new level when talking about Jeremy Bentham, a founder of Utilitarianism. During his time, Bentham produced many doctrines, which were feared by conservatives. Kirk explains that Bentham posed grave danger to the establishment of customs and traditions on which society runs, according to conservatives. According to Kirk, Bentham’s ideals took England by storm. The people were in awe with his ideas to reform and alter the old way of life. He was a proponent of Industrialization, which was a popular new idea, and people were captivated by his words. He spoke with charismatic qualities, drawing people to him. The people followed him because of his natural appeal and confident ways. Kirk disagrees with the way Bentham persuaded society. He states that Bentham had one sole cause, to create equality in all aspects of society. This way of life was one all converatists would most likely oppose. Kirk especially argued against Bentham’s points, stating that it would only result in self-destruction. Kirk’s fourth chapter possesses the aspects of his second, fourth fifth, and six canons.
In chapter five Kirk discusses two American conservatives before his time. They include John Randolph of Roanoke, and John C. Calhoun. Kirk focuses first on John Randolph of Roanoke. Hailing from the South, Roanoke was a large supporter of nationalism and conservatism. He was extremely dedicated to the Constitution. Roanoke was devoted to preserving every word on the parchment. He despised the idea of reduction or expansion on any account. His belief was that the founding fathers constructed the Declaration to be followed as is, not as a rough draft. While Kirk agrees with this theory, he explains that certain aspects in life change, not due to radical force but by advancement in intelligence. Therefore, when society changes, some of the Constitutions points become a round peg in a square hole. So while Kirk opposes random radical actions, he does support the basic idea of small slow improvements to society, but only when needed. Kirk begins to change his train of thought from Roanoke to John C. Calhoun. Calhoun, a conservative, was a advocate of minorities. He was very ncomfortable with the notion that minorities were completely overlooked due to the looming shadow cast by the majorities. His argument was that since there is no possible representation of minorities against majorities that the minorities might as well not exist. Calhoun, after years of contemplation, proposed that there is a way for both groups to be accounted for. He suggests that by headcounting votes, each group is defined by an unchanging number. His idea was to construct a way to eliminate representation by a number value and instead by equal representation from each group. Calhoun figured that votes should not be counted one by one, but by weighted factors of geography, economically, and by population characteristcs. He was concerned that this could possibly affect liberty in a negative way. Kirk states that he views both Adams and Calhoun helped shape the foundation of the nation through their political writings. This chapter conveys the ideas of Kirk’s sixth canon.
In the sixth chapter kirk focuses on three men who he believes embodies the dedication to protecting liberty while maintaining structure. These men include Thomas MaCaulay, J.F Cooper, and Alexis de Tocqueville. Kirk points out that although these three men have very original ideas, they all expanded from Burke’s original principles. Kirk starts with MaCauly. He was outraged with the concept of redistributing wealth. He was dead set on the notion that individuals are responsible for their own life and success. Just because one man attains higher achievement than another, does not mean the wealthier man is responsible for man with less than him. He believed men work for what they have, a lack of success should not result in free help from the more successful. Macauly proposed that while the idea of better representing the minorities was positive, the results could potentially be catastrophic. His main concern was that the lower class would take over, vote the option resulting in immediate benefit, without contemplating the possible outcomes. He feared they would vote to redistribute wealth, which MaCauly bluntly states as the action of invading the upperclass, and stripping them of their wealth. This concept, Kirk states, would have irreversible catastrophic affects. MaCauly proposes a possible solution could be education. If society as a whole was equally educated, then they could all work towards success with equal resources. Kirk is skeptical of this idea, presenting the fact that state education would not impact society as much as MaCauly assumed it would. Kirk ends his discussion of MaCauly and begins to talk about J.F. Cooper. Cooper was a strong believer of all men being far from equal. He agrees entirely with John Adam’s principle of natural aristocrats. Coopers argument was that inequality was all around. Government itself generated inequality in the simplest form. He followed the conservatist mindset that society, at this time, lacked men with the natural ability to produce quality leadership. One of Coopers motives was to maintain the men who possessed these qualities, and expand their knowledge into society. Both Burke and Adams wholeheartedly agreed with Coopers statement, that some men are just meant to lead; it’s a natural ability that not everyone possesses. These natural leaders evolve from the natural aristocrats. Kirk mentions that in addition the conservatist belief of natural leaders, there is also the theory, stated by Alexis de Tocqueville that the radical push to equality in all aspects would result in strive being lowered to mediocre. Tocqueville proposed that if everyone is foced to be equal, mankind would lose the natural instinct to rise above. There would be no point in over achieving when in the long run the success would be distributed to everyone. Tocqueville warns that without strive, structure will be depleted, joy from success will no longer exist, and most importantly one of the founding fathers’ pillars of America, pursuit of happiness, would be terminated. He explained that there would be no need for pursuit if everyone was the same. Kirk points out that Tocqueville’s argument was very possible and could end up a disaster. He proposes that a solution to this issue could be maintaining structure, tradition and customs. In particular Kirk valued the institution of laws to be a key component. The chapter revolves around Kirk’s first, second, third, and fourth canon.
In chapter seven Kirk is concerned with the rise of Industrialization and everything that comes with it. This form of society was one that struck fear into the hearts of all conservatists. Every principle and ideal they stood for would be wiped away by this new way of life. The conservatist nightmare that all of society would become equal in all aspects was beginning to come true. Industrialization seemed wonderful, and did result in positive outcomes. However, not everything this government produced was a success. Those devoted to conservatism were beginning to teeter on the line of what is true. Many conservatists started to become unsure of their beliefs. History has proved that sometimes beliefs are wrong, slavery, viewing women as less, and many more examples. The conservatists were beginning to believe that they were in the wrong, that tradition and customs would never hold through the future, change was the new way. Kirk explains that although Industrialism made a huge impact on the world, almost pushing conservatism out of the picture, tradition still remained, and so did the conservatists. In this chapter the canons of Kirk that can be applied are the fifth and sixth ones.
In the eighth chapter Kirk moves away from the looming Industrialization and pinpoints two conservatives, Benjamin Disraeli, and John Henry Newman. Kirk explains that during this time, some people who opposed the natural aristocrat theory, declared that everyone is born equal and it is their environment, resources and luck that determine their success or failure. Disraeli completely opposed this idea. He stated that believed everyone should be offered an equal chance, equal resources and education. However. he believed, that no matter how equal everyone is in those aspects the natural born talent will surpass the ordinary citizens. Disraeli, jokingly expressed that the only way true equality would be reached would be to take the natural born talent and give them a lesser education, while the ordinary folks are given higher education. Kirk agrees with Disraeli’s point that equality cannot be met unless each side is balanced. Moving forward Kirk begins to talk about John Henry Newman and his thoughts on the same idea. Newman agrees with the balance and equality and states that true leaders deserve higher education. Society should be given equal right to the same education, so they gain equal tools to success. However, higher education should be limited to the elite, the men that show true potential and talent. He backs up to a counterpoint; proposing that it is possible for an ordinary man, not born with exceptional abilities, could in theory, gain enough knowledge through education and dedication to deserve higher education as well. In short, anyone can be elite, but only the elite should have higher education. Kirk enjoys Newman’s theory and adds that leaders should be required to have higher education, therefore only the elite can rule, which would result in a government of quality. The eighth chapter relies on Kirk’s first, second, third, and fourth canons.
In Kirk’s ninth chapter he begins to discuss James Fitzjames Stephen and his views on life. Stephen stood by the idea that everything is based on religion. He believed that religious morality were the basis fro which laws should derive. Because of his religious devotion, he also argued that just like some men are natural born aristocrats, men can also be naturally born good, evil, and somewhere in between. This theory proposed that he opposed the notion of men naturally born equal. According to Stephen, the men who were born good were put on Earth by God to rule and regulate the men born evil. Due to the contrast of good and evil, he was a strong believer of laws of liberty. Kirk explains how although religion does not have to play this large of a role, the ideals all go back to Burke. Shifting gears Kirk brings up a man named W.E.H. Lecky. Lecky agreed with Burke’s morals and theories, and had a particularly strong devotion to the detrimental affects wealth distribution could have He explained that the founding fathers created expectations for the United States of America, and its citizens. Which included rights, freedom, and pursuit of happiness. W.E.H. Lecky argued that the action of taxing the propertied class for benefit of the poor, violated the upper class’ rights. By taking money from the upper class, the government was restraining their freedom to succeed. It imposed the idea that the more success a man has, the more he is punished for it. Lastly, by trying to create equality between classes, via property and wealth, the government was taking away the pursuit of happiness. Men would not work harder if their money gets taken away for others benefit. He disliked regulation, stating that people worked for what they had; just because some succeeded a little more does not mean they should be punished. Kirk expresses that he really values both Stephen and Lecky’s arguments, especially since they stem from Burke’s ideals. In this chapter, Kirk expands on his first, second, third, and fourth canons.
Chapter ten begins with an unfortunate twist. According to Kirk, a downfall for conservatism was the period of Reconstruction and the Gilded Age. Kirk was quite fond of James Russell Lowell because of his strong allegiance to tradition. With the rise of radical movements many traditions and customs were diminishing. The reformation resulted in multiple changes, lack of education, and an increase in immigrants. Due to these issues, manners, intelligence, and tradition was slowly disappearing, according to Lowell. He proposed that a vital solution was to nationally educate in order to produce a better society. He agreed with many conservatists before him, that education would not create equality, but it would yield the depletion of manners, intelligence and tradition. Kirk really backed Lowell’s argument up, stating that society was wonderful when the English language was ornate and full, and that manners was a concept which was once second nature. However, due to the reformation and its affects, the English language was altered for efficiency, and manners now had to be taught and remembered. Kirk expressed his disgust for the new way. He also feared that these issues could potentially hurt the future government. In this chapter Kirk’s canons that applied are the second, third, fifth, and sixth.
In the previous chapter Kirk was dismayed with the horrible affects of change. However, in the eleventh chapter history takes another turn. Around 1895 conservatism took a turn in the upward direction. At this point in time, the richer upper class and the upper middle classes were composed of dedicated conservatives. Due to this scenario, more and more people began to ban together as conservatists in order to protect their success. Unfortunately, this upward bound did not last. Approximately ten years later the conservative power, once again, declined. It did not decline slowly and steadily, but instead, straight down. Kirk explains his thoughts as to why this drop occurred. He stated that a main factor was the rise of socialism. Socialism was the new way, becoming increasingly popular. Kirk, disgusted by the up rise of socialism, turns now to a man named George Gissing. Similar to a conservative view, Gissing strongly believed that with proper education, the quality of the leaders would drastically improve, ultimately improving society for future generations. Unfortunately he had major doubts in this becoming reality due to the present state of socialism. Kirk expresses that he truly believed in Gissing’s proposal, explain it was exactly what Burke would say. In this chapter the fifth and sixth canons apply.
In chapter twelve Kirk discusses the characteristics that every good leader should possess. One man that Kirk believes hit the nail on the head for qualities in a leader was Irving Babbit. He proposed his ideals of the perfect leader. He first pointed out if the leaders did not attain quality, civilization would vanish. Both Kirk and Babbit believe that there are distinct characteristics to be a good leader. One must be passionate, possess a true understanding of justice, show a high level of intelligence, rely on religious morals, and be an overall natural leader. This coincides with the idea of natural aristocracy. Kirk goes on to explain that at this point in time, a change had to be made. The change that Kirk saw as vital was the Reformation of higher education. Kirk articulates that education is the key to success, and the reason for failure is the result of education falling prisoner to technical training and impatience. Kirk emphasizes that education is what gives society a base foundation of intelligence, but higher education, ike college, is where the natural leaders can expand their knowledge and reach their full potential, to become elite. He believes that natural leaders should receive a liberal education, which is the idea of pushing ones mind to the top, again becoming elite. This chapter focuses on the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth canons.
The thirteenth chapter was not added to The Conservative Mind until the 1985 edition of the book. However, this chapter really brings the whole argument together. Kirk explains that while conservatism had its ups and downs, almost becoming extinct, while thriving at other times, almost being overtaken by other forms of beliefs At the end of it all conservatism has held its ground all of these years, while its once strong enemies, socialism and utilitarianism, have almost completely expired. Kirk admits that conservatism will never take over completely, it will always stand its ground as long as it has follows that truly believe in the aspects of tradition, customs, and the idea that change can be positive, but only when needed and handled with caution. The Conservative Mind by Russell Kirk was an unbelievable piece of writing. He really brings the reader through the history of conservatism, while not dwelling on the past. He does not summarize the history of conservatism in order to teach society a timeline. Instead he reviews periods and figures in history that he sees as valuable to the heart of conservatism. Kirk uses each chapter to review a specific point in time, analyze the events, specifies the positives and negatives, and draws a conclusion on how each event can allow conservatism to flourish in the future. By doing this, Kirk, is truly preserving conservatism and everything it stands for. Through this work, he praises conservatists throughout history who he believed showed true devotion and proposed solutions and ideas to aid in maintaining the way of life. However, the most influential conservatist writer, who’s works will help preserve conservatism forever, is none other than the Duke graduate, Russell Kirk.

Works Cited
Kirk, Russell. The Conservative Mind. Washington DC: Regnery, 2001. Print.

Kirk, Annitta. "The Russell Kirk Center." The Russell Kirk Center. Annitta Kirk, 2014. Web. 17 Apr. 2014. .