... Capital Market Theory: An Overview • Capital market theory extends portfolio theory and develops a model for pricing all risky assets • Capital asset pricing model (CAPM) will allow you to determine the required rate of return for any risky asset Assumptions of Capital Market Theory 1. All investors are Markowitz efficient investors who want to target points on the efficient frontier. Assumptions of Capital Market Theory 2. Investors can borrow or lend any amount of money at the risk-free rate of return (RFR). Assumptions of Capital Market Theory 3. All investors have homogeneous expectations; that is, they estimate identical probability distributions for future rates of return. Assumptions of Capital Market Theory 4. All investors have the same one-period time horizon such as one-month, six months, or one year. Assumptions of Capital Market Theory 5. All investments are infinitely divisible, which means that it is possible to buy or sell fractional shares of any asset or portfolio. Assumptions of Capital Market Theory 6. There are no taxes or transaction costs involved in buying or selling assets. Assumptions of Capital Market Theory 7. There is no inflation or any change in interest rates, or inflation is fully anticipated. Assumptions of Capital Market Theory 8. Capital markets are in equilibrium. Risk-Free Asset • • • • An asset with zero standard deviation Zero correlation with all other risky assets Provides the risk-free rate...
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...INTRODUCTION Based on the law of one price, two items that are the same cannot sell at different prices, when this occurs arbitrage takes place and the arbitrageurs buy the cheaper goods and sell the higher priced goods till all the prices of the goods are equal. Arbitrage Pricing Theory describes a mechanism used by investors to identify an asset, such as a share of common stock, which is incorrectly priced. On the other hand the Capital Asset Pricing Model is based on a comparison or the systematic risk/market risk of individual investment with the risk of all shares in the market. It is also used to calculate cost of equity and incorporates risk. ARBITRAGE PRICING THEORY Arbitrage Pricing Theory was developed by the economist Stephen Ross in 1976. Arbitrage Pricing Theory assumes that each stock’s return to the investor is influenced by several independent factors. The APT model also states that the risk premium of a stock depends on two factors: The risk premium associated with each of the factors The stock’s sensitivity to the factors similar to the beta concept This theory does not tell the investor what those factors are for a particular stock or asset; in theory one stock might be more sensitive to one factor than another. Arbitrage leaves it up for the investor or fund manager to identify each factor for a particular stock. Hence the real challenge is for the fund manager to identify Each of the factors affecting a particular stock The expected returns...
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...Regulation of financial accounting Why examine theories of regulation? Better placed to understand why some accounting prescriptions become part of legislation while others do not. Accounting standard – setting is a very political process While some proposed requirements may be technically sound and logical, they may not be mandated due to political ‘power’ or influence of some affected parties What is regulation? The Oxford Dictionary defines regulation in terms of a “prescribed rule” Macquarie Dictionary defined regulation as “a rule of order, as for conduct, prescribed by authority; a governing direction or law”. On the basis of these definitions can say that regulation is designed to control or govern conduct Hence, when we are discussing regulations relating to financial accounting, we are discussing rules that have been developed by an independent authoritative body that has been given the power to govern how we are to prepare financial statements, and the actions of the authoritative body will have the effect of restricting the accounting options that would otherwise be to an organisation. ‘Free Market’ perspective Accounting information should be treated like other goods, with demand and supply forces allowed to operate to generate an optimal supply. Arguments supporting ‘free – market’ perspective Private economic – based incentives ‘Market for managers’ ‘Market for corporate takeovers’ ‘Market for lemons’ Private economic – based incentives ...
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...and mercantilist theories of international political economy and consider which approach is most apparent in the contemporary world. The following seeks to contrast liberal and mercantilist theories that have developed to describe and analyze the international political economy. Once the contrasts have been made conclusions as to which theory is the most apt or apparent in the contemporary world will be drawn. Both liberal and mercantilist theories have advantages and disadvantages when used to understand the international political economy in the present global system. Perhaps it would be more apt to describe the liberal theory as being neo-liberal as it has undergone a recent revival in popularity. It must be remembered that whether a state is most influenced by liberal or mercantilists theories that trade will never be completely free of duty and tariffs, as they are useful sources of revenue for governments. Governments also have to have relationships with other governments and non-state actors that may or may not share their worldview. Liberalism itself can be dated back to the English, American and French revolutions of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when the mercantilist economic system evolved into capitalism. Liberals were originally regarded as being politically centrist or left wing in outlook but favoring little or no state intervention in the economy. In its original form liberal economic theory strongly advocated a free market approach with states...
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...the founding father of economics and the first free-market capitalist. In fact, in many ways his philosophies and theories have helped shape our country and our economy into what it is today. Smith introduced us to the invisible hand theory which referred to the free markets. The invisible hand theory stated that ultimately when people were left able to pursue their best interests, meaning that they were able to pursue work that made them happy and that enabled them to command the highest wage for themselves or when entrepreneurs were able to provide good and services for profit, this promoted the growth and prosperity of the nation. In simpler terms, each individual while looking out for himself or herself will inadvertently help improve the lives of others around them Adam Smith’s theories were a precursor to the free market system that we call capitalism. Smith’s theories held that the extent of government involvement should be limited and that the consumers would keep the markets at equilibrium. Smith’s theories held that in pursuing their best interests, consumer were able to choose the best prices and in doing so would weed out unfair competition, a process of elimination of sorts. These principles encouraged entrepreneurism and competition, which in itself is instrumental to the growth and development of any society. While Smith believed that while the government should have no role in the controlling the free market, he did believe that the government’s role should...
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...history, economists have debated over various theories, in an effort to discover the one solution that will achieve the most efficient and beneficial economy. One school of thought titled, Classical Economics, is infamous has been called the “first modern school of economic thought.”[1] Two economist/philosophers who have been placed within this Classical category are Adam Smith and Karl Marx. Though these two men are polar opposites in the political-economic spectrum they share some similarities; and although dated, there are points of value to both Adam Smith’s and Karl Marx’s theories. Adam Smith, the father of economics as a science, combined economics with moral theory in regards to the way societies ought to live. Today’s capitalist economic systems have been shaped by Smith’s explanations of market factors and the role of the state, or lack thereof, in economics. Karl Marx, a fundamental revolutionary, is one of the original minds behind communism. He is renowned as a radical political philosopher. These men have together been placed in the school of classical economics, signaling that there are similarities in their ideology. Politically, however, these men differ greatly. This essay intends to study some of their most poignant theories to compare fundamental differences. Karl Marx became famous for his revolutionary ideas and as one of the originators of communist theories. He is renowned for his book on economic theory, Das Kapital. As members of the Communist League...
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...Risk Internationalizing Portfolio National Markets / Performance Mini Case Summary International Portfolio Theory and Diversification Group 5 Kristin Hanselmann, Anna Ivaniuk, Lalita Pongpitakwises, Christian Seemann Fachhochschule Mainz - MA.IB International Finance March 2013 K. Hanselmann, A. Ivaniuk, L. Pongpitakwises, C. Seemann International Portfolio Theory and Diversification 1/35 Introduction Diversification / Risk Internationalizing Portfolio National Markets / Performance Mini Case Summary Introduction Christian Seemann International Portfolio Theory and Diversification 2/35 Introduction Diversification / Risk Internationalizing Portfolio National Markets / Performance Mini Case Summary Agenda Introduction International Diversification and Risk Internationalizing the Domestic Portfolio National Markets and Asset Performance Mini Case Summary 1 2 3 4 5 6 Christian Seemann International Portfolio Theory and Diversification 3/35 Introduction Diversification / Risk Internationalizing Portfolio National Markets / Performance Mini Case Summary Introduction Multinational Business Finance Part 5 - Foreign Investment Decisions Chapter 17 Pages 432 – 451 Christian Seemann International Portfolio Theory and Diversification 4/35 Introduction Diversification / Risk Internationalizing Portfolio National Markets / Performance Mini Case Summary International...
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...studying the concepts and ideas that establish supply and demand in a particular market and the way that consumers and businesses alike prioritize their spending. Essentially, the role of microeconomics is to determine how, when combined, small economic components are affecting the broader economy. Instead of looking at market indicators that represent a wide field of data, however, this type of study considers how individuals, households, or specific markets are responding to markets. Although this economic approach does not necessarily reveal or determine economic conditions, the process offers insight into the way that consumers and businesses alike decide the value of a particular product or service. This is expressed in the amount of resources that either the consumer or business dedicates to an item. Rather than tallying the way that consumers as a whole are responding to a particular product, for instance, microeconomics begins with the study of the extent of demand stemming from one single consumer. Once this demand has been determined, this study continues and expands to include a greater number of individuals in the assessment. Economists also study businesses to learn how these entities respond to different types of consumer demand and the ultimate effect on pricing. A major role of microeconomics is to recognize the way that prices for goods and services are established in a given market. The process involves identifying the impact that supply and demand have on the...
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...1.0 Introduction Free trade is the unrestricted purchase or exchange of good and services between countries without imposition of constraints such as quotas, tariffs and duties (Kent, 2004). It is a win-win situation as free trade enables a country to emphasis on their core competitive advantages which can boost up income growth, at the same time maximizing economic output. In other words, free trade allows a country to specialize on certain product that they has the distinctive comparative advantage (Herrmann, 2000). On the other hand, it usually benefits the developed countries whose most of the big firms are looking to sell and expand their goods or services abroad due to it is a great opportunity for them to open up an international market. In fact, Malaysia is an actively pursuing free trade agreements with numerous countries, therefore, free trade might bring some positive and negative impact for Malaysia (Esther, 2014). Free trade benefits Malaysia such as enhance product quality and production efficiency, wider consumer choice lead to increases in standard of living and also reduction in unemployed resources. However, free trade will also cause some issues for Malaysia involved local firms unable to compete with foreign market, reduction job opportunity, environmental damaged and free trade may encourage dumping (Edge, 2010). 2.0 Advantages of Free Trade 2.1 Raise Competition and Lead to Improve in Product Quality Nowadays, many people are willing to purchase...
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...Sivarama Krishnan, University of Central Oklahoma ABSTRACT This paper attempts reconciliation between the two somewhat extreme views espoused by the shareholder wealth maximization paradigm and the stakeholder theory. The stakeholder theory challenges the basic premise built into corporate finance theory, teaching and practice. Corporate finance theory, teaching and the typically recommended practice are all built on the premise that the primary goal of a corporation should be shareholder wealth value maximization. Extant theoretical and empirical research in financial economics also generally accept shareholder wealth maximization as the normative and ideal goal on which all business decisions should be based. This paradigm assumes that there are no externalities and all the participants engaged in transactions with the firm are voluntary players competing in free, fair and competitive markets. A very different view is offered by what is loosely called stakeholder theory. The stakeholder theory posits that the focus on shareholders and firm value is misplaced and managers should be concerned with all stakeholders of the firm. The paper attempts to address what is felt as a lack of dialogue between the two camps. INTRODUCTION Corporate finance theory, teaching and the typically recommended practice at least in the US are all built on the premise that the primary goal of a corporation should be the maximization of shareholder value. Extant theoretical and empirical...
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...Modern portfolio theory From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Portfolio analysis" redirects here. For theorems about the mean-variance efficient frontier, see Mutual fund separation theorem. For non-mean-variance portfolio analysis, see Marginal conditional stochastic dominance. Modern portfolio theory (MPT) is a theory of finance which attempts to maximize portfolio expected return for a given amount of portfolio risk, or equivalently minimize risk for a given level of expected return, by carefully choosing the proportions of various assets. Although MPT is widely used in practice in the financial industry and several of its creators won a Nobel memorial prize for the theory,[1] in recent years the basic assumptions of MPT have been widely challenged by fields such as behavioral economics. MPT is a mathematical formulation of the concept of diversification in investing, with the aim of selecting a collection of investment assets that has collectively lower risk than any individual asset. That this is possible can be seen intuitively because different types of assets often change in value in opposite ways.[2] For example, to the extent prices in the stock market move differently from prices in the bond market, a collection of both types of assets can in theory face lower overall risk than either individually. But diversification lowers risk even if assets' returns are not negatively correlated—indeed, even if they are positively correlated.[3] More technically, MPT models...
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... This paper intends to discuss the basic theories within the scope of the tragedy of commons, especially from the ethics perspective. In addition, the paper also explicitly explores two possible ways to solve the tragedy of the commons, the free market solution and the socialism solution, and applies these ways to a real case of Euro’s Tragedy. In the end, referring to Elinor Ostrom’s theory in 2009, the paper recommends the collective agreement from the moral perspective to be the possible ideal solution to the tragedy of the commons. | | Contents 1. Introduction 1 2. Formation 2 2.1 Theoretical explain of the formation 2 2.2 Hardin’s grazing model 4 3. Ethics Involved 5 3.1 Ethical Egoism Theory 5 3.2 Utilitarian Theory 5 3.3 Moral Foundation Theory, Virtue Theory and Confucius 6 3.4 Right Theory 6 4. Solutions to the Tragedy 7 4.1 Free market solution 7 4.2 Socialism solution 9 4.3 Comparison of the Two Solutions 10 4.3.1 Attitude towards self-interest 11 4.3.2 Attitude towards common resources 11 4.3.3 Government Function 11 4.3.4 Incentive structures 11 4.3.5 Outcomes 12 5. Case of Euro’s Tragedy 12 5.1 How Euro’s Tragedy Happened 13 5.2 How it related to Tragedy of the Commons 14 5.3 Free Market Capitalism Solution and the Tragedy of Euro 14 5.4 Socialism Solution and the Tragedy of Euro 15 6. A Third Solution 17 6.1 Ethical Obligation 17 6.2 Cultivating Ethics 17 6.3 Elinor Ostrom’s Theory 18 7. Conclusion 20 Bibliography 21 ...
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...historical structuralism. Being that these are the three most accepted perspectives suggests that the majority of the views within these theories are strengths. However, with so much information, there are bound to be weaknesses and flaws found within these theories as well. There are always ways to improve on these the weaknesses and theories in general. International Political Economy deals with three main approaches: liberalism, historical structuralism and mercantilism. Each theory has its own strengths and weaknesses, but the way to improve them all is not to fix each individual weakness but to combine the strengths of all the perspectives into to create an entirely new theory. Liberalism is often described as the IPE perspective that focuses on the individual and the primacy of freedom or liberty in the book “Introduction to International Political Economy” by David Balaam and Michael Veseth. Individual freedom and capitalism are the overarching ideas found within the idea of liberalism. Capitalism is commonly referred to as a market-based economic system where free-markets and competition are the governing factors. Within the discipline of capitalism, Adam Smith is arguably one of the most significant figures. Smith created the idea of “the invisible hand”, or the idea that an “invisible hand” that guides the economy and common good. The market is self regulated so the state government is never needed to intervene. Another, more commonly used tern for this...
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...Print Icon Print Posted: Nov 24, 2010 | Reprints Icon Reprints Filed under Economics Financial Theory Ben McClure Contact | Author Bio Advertisement No matter how much we diversify our investments, it's impossible to get rid of all the risk. As investors, we deserve a rate of return that compensates us for taking on risk. The capital asset pricing model (CAPM) helps us to calculate investment risk and what return on investment we should expect. Here we look at the formula behind the model, the evidence for and against the accuracy of CAPM, and what CAPM means to the average investor. Birth of a Model The capital asset pricing model was the work of financial economist (and, later, Nobel laureate in economics) William Sharpe, set out in his 1970 book "Portfolio Theory And Capital Markets." His model starts with the idea that individual investment contains two types of risk: Systematic Risk - These are market risks that cannot be diversified away. Interest rates, recessions and wars are examples of systematic risks. Unsystematic Risk - Also known as "specific risk," this risk is specific to individual stocks and can be diversified away as the investor increases the number of stocks in his or her portfolio. In more technical terms, it represents the component of a stock's return that is not correlated with general market moves. Modern portfolio theory shows that specific risk can be removed through diversification. The trouble is that diversification...
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...tariff products from abroad. This meant that nations should sell their goods to other countries while buying nothing in return. Predictably, nations fell into rounds of retaliatory tariffs that choked off international trade. (For related reading, see The Basics Of Tariffs And Trade Barriers.) The Invisible Hand The core of Smith's thesis was that man's natural tendency toward self-interest - in modern terms, looking out for No.1 - results in prosperity. By giving everyone freedom to produce and exchange goods as they pleased (free trade) and opening all markets to competition (international as well as domestic - Smith lived in the age of government chartered monopolies), people's natural self-interest would bring about universal opulence with very little effort from a nation's government. This free-market force became known as the invisible hand, but it needed support to bring about its magic. (For more insight on free market theories, see Free Markets: What's The Cost?) Boiling his principles down to essentials, Smith believed...
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