...The Importance of Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons, organic chemical compounds of carbon and hydrogen molecules, are one the world’s most crucial energy resources, derived from petroleum, natural gas, and coal. They are utilized as fuels, lubricants, electrical power generation, heating, and as raw materials to make plastics, fibers, rubbers, solvents, explosives, and industrial chemicals. Hydrocarbons are an abundant, as well as efficient resource. Also, contrary to common belief, extraction of these resources is relatively safe for the environment. The oceans that border the United States contain an astounding amount of oil and natural gas that is not being utilized. This is due to areas having restricted exploration and drilling access. The restricted areas along the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and the eastern Gulf of Mexico hold more than 19 billion barrels of oil, almost thirty years’ worth of what is currently being imported from Saudi Arabia. The estimated amount of oil increases as areas are explored. The Pacific Ocean is believed to have the greatest potential. Hydrocarbons are a very efficient resource. They have a very high calorific value, the value of the amount of energy produced, with fossil fuels having the highest. Since fossil fuels produce such a high amount of energy and are easily combustible, they have been popularized all over the world. Most combustion engines need only small amounts of fuel to create large amounts of energy, while energy from alternative...
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...Tones of Equivalent(MMTOE) (survey 2005). In 2004, the consumption of oil and gas formed a major percentage in the world energy consumption basket. In India, however, coal still dominates the major source of energy. Indian oil and gas industry has emerged as significant contributor in growth of Indian economy. After establishment of New Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP) in 1997 efforts were made to strengthen the industry which include acquisition of oil and gas assets in India and abroad, identifying new oil and gas fields, improving techniques to enhanced oil recovery. Despite of several efforts made by Indian government, India has not made any major breakthroughs in the field of oil and natural gas that has hold a place of key importance in India’s economy. The prospects of Indian oil industry are for more exciting than any other, which India being among the least explored countries in the world at a well density of 20 per 10000 km2. India is the third largest oil consumer in Asia, even though on per capita basis the consumption is mere 0.1 tone per year, the lowest in the region. the 26 sedimentary basins only eight have been explored so far. The petroleum industry has three major components: Upstream,...
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...is the largest and most dynamic industry, which provides a stable increase in crude oil and natural gas. In the Kazakhstan sector of the Caspian Sea, there is continuing evaluation of public oil and gas fields with large reserves of hydrocarbons. Potential hydrocarbon of the Republic of Kazakhstan is estimated sufficiently significant in the total world reserves. Kazakhstan holds big hydrocarbon reserves, including potentially the second largest oil reserves in the world (US Energy Information Administration). According to official data from the Ministry of Oil and Gas of Republic of Kazakhstan, confirmed hydrocarbon reserves, both onshore and offshore, are estimated to be 4.8 billion tons or more than 35 billion barrels for 2012. Kazakhstan possesses unique geographical features that lead the country’s oil and gas cluster to be spread throughout the entire country, instead of one specific geographical area. Around 70% of Kazakhstan’s oil and gas reserves, both onshore and offshore, are concentrated in Western Kazakhstan around the city of Atyrau. Some oil reserves are also located in Southern Kazakhstan but the prospects for new discoveries there are not very promising (US-Kazakhstan Business Association). The majority of hydrocarbon reserves are located in the oil- and gas-rich regions of Kashagan, Tengiz and Karachaganak. The discovery of the Kashagan Field in 2000 is considered to be the largest oil field discovery in the last 30 years. The Kashagan Field, located...
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...flowing condition, we can see that we have a point far above the saturation dome; therefore the fluid is single phase. For a 10 year flowing condition, the temperature is given as 96°C and has a pressure of 13.2 MPa. At this flowing condition, we have a point that is just inside the saturation dome which means that the fluid is in 2 phases. Importance of the overlap. We can see from the above graph that the vapour stream is significantly flatter than the feed and vapour streams. This is because the vapour and feed stream have similar component compositions. There is quite a large overlap of the liquid and vapour streams between -150°C and 50°C which indicates that there is a large proportion of gas in both these streams. All three of the phase envelopes overlap at some point because they all consist of the same components. The flatness of the liquid stream can be attributed to the fact that the liquid has a lower vapour pressure at any given temperature, than the vapour and feed streams. The liquid stream also contains heavier hydrocarbons which exhibit a lower pressure than the vapour and gas streams which consist of lighter hydrocarbons. The bubble point curve of the liquid stream intersects with the dew point of the vapour stream curve at 55°C and 11 MPa, which are the NRA process conditions. At this point, the fluid is separated into 2 phases which is consistent with our separator conditions. | Mole Compositions | Component | Gas | Liquid | Nitrogen | 3.15e-3 |...
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...the samples and sampling 8 Analysis 8 Results and Discussion 9 Conclusion 13 References 14 Altitude and Seasonally Profiled Air Concentrations of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) Determined with PDMS (TWISTER®) in Taurus Mountains, Turkey Introduction To monitor environmental pollution and its health effects, atmospheric data of persistent organic pollutants (POP) has been collected for some time to help in evaluating the cause. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) have been in focus of attention for years. In 1982, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) come forth with a thorough study on the emissions and health effects of benzo (a) pyrene and other PAHs (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1982). According to the report, the carcinogenetic effect of benzo (a) pyrene was already proven and other PAHs were suspected to have similar effects. The US EPA categorized these PAHs and selected 16 compounds that were found and monitored to prove the claims. They are were named as the sixteen EPA-PAHs. The emission sources for these compounds that were presented in the study as having an anthropogenic origin. Following this, the European Commission issued a position paper on monitoring PAHs in the air (European Commission, 2001). The effort has been of great importance since PAHs are by-products of nearly every combustion. The strategy have also improved the air quality requirement for the European Union. These standards set by the paper have to...
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...bacteria such as Alphaproteobacteria and Cyanobacteria were found to be the most abundant organisms in these collected samples. This suggests that the temperature of the water plays a direct role in how the microbial community responds to hydrocarbons. Another defense for the role of temperature would be the abundance of growth of Colwellia when incubated at 4oC compared to the minimal growth when incubated at room temperature. In laboratory conditions, Colwellia was the main organism that incorporated Carbon 13 in SIP experiments and given its abundance in the sample, it is likely that Colwellia was active in ethane and propane oxidation in situ. Colwellia was also capable of incorporating Carbon 13 benzene, and its abundance in crude oil without natural gas suggests that Colwellia has a wide range of abilities to be able to degrade multiple kinds of hydrocarbons. The fact that Colwellia could grow from ethane and propane, and to a lesser extent, Oceanospirillales, suggests that the high natural gas content in the spill was advantageous to the organisms. * Impact Factor * The impact factor for the journal in 2013, PNAS or Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, is 9.809. * Importance of the published work in the field * Strength: I believe that strength that this published work has for this field would include that it continues the knowledge of underwater...
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...OAO TNK-BP Holding ABOUT DATAMONITOR Datamonitor is a leading business information company specializing in industry analysis. Through its proprietary databases and wealth of expertise, Datamonitor provides clients with unbiased expert analysis and in depth forecasts for six industry sectors: Healthcare, Technology, Automotive, Energy, Consumer Markets, and Financial Services. The company also advises clients on the impact that new technology and eCommerce will have on their businesses. Datamonitor maintains its headquarters in London, and regional offices in New York, Frankfurt, and Hong Kong. The company serves the world's largest 5000 companies. Datamonitor's premium reports are based on primary research with industry panels and consumers. We gather information on market segmentation, market growth and pricing, competitors and products. Our experts then interpret this data to produce detailed forecasts and actionable recommendations, helping you create new business opportunities and ideas. Our series of company, industry and country profiles complements our premium products, providing top-level information on 10,000 companies, 2,500 industries and 50 countries. While they do not contain the highly detailed breakdowns found in premium reports, profiles give you the most important qualitative and quantitative summary information you need - including predictions and forecasts. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system...
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...emission, the amount of carbon dioxide produced per year was 83.3%. This percentage of carbon dioxide is mostly contributed by home energy. The high amounts of greenhouse gases produced is due to the usage of hydrocarbons in heating and lighting where an estimate of 2.5 tons of carbon dioxide are produced. In addition, my vehicle emits an extra estimate of 1.4 tons of carbon dioxide for 30 miles in a week. My consumption of meat has an impact of 4.1 tons of carbon dioxide per year. All these personal activities made me realize the personal impact an individual can have to the environment (Bishop, 2008). From the learning outcome, I really feel I have a role to play in the environment. This is because I was not aware of the harm I was causing to the environment in contributing to greenhouse effects. I now appreciate the importance of keeping low personal carbon footprint (Bishop, 2008). After calculating my carbon footprint, I realized I had an impact on the environment. This impact is much more than I am supposed to and hence the need to try my level best to lower the amount of carbon dioxide I contribute to the environment (Lynas, & HarperCollins, 2007). Part of my life contributing the most carbon is lighting and heating where I mostly use hydrocarbons for such purposes. The burning of these sources of fuel contribute a lot to emission of carbon dioxide and hence the high carbon footprint (Lynas, & HarperCollins, 2007). However, I can reduce this number...
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...Refrigeration Cycles Content: The ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle vaporActual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle VaporHeat Pump System for Heating and Cooling Innovative Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle VaporGas Refrigeration Cycles Absorption Refrigeration Systems Refrigerants Selection Refrigeration affects many areas of your life The obvious: Refrigerator/Freezers allow food preservation Air conditioning Refrigerated fishing boats allow preservation of catch Refrigerated trucks are used to ship fruits/meats Refrigeration makes possible medical procedures that call for lowering body temperatures Refrigerator and Heat Pump The objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat (QL) from the cold medium; the objective of a heat pump is to supply heat (QH) to a warm medium. Schematic diagram of the ideal vaporcompression refrigeration cycle Compressor Condenser Evaporator Simple view of household refrigerator T-s Diagram of the Ideal Refrigeration Cycle Process 1-2 Isentropic Compression Process Process 2-3 P = const. Heat Rejection Process const. Process 3-4 Expansion under Throttling Process, h = const Process 4-1 P = const. Heat Addition Process const. P-h Diagram of the Ideal Refrigeration Cycle Process 1-2 Isentropic Compression Process Process 2-3 P = const. Heat Rejection Process const. Process 3-4 Expansion under Throttling Process, h = const Process 4-1 P = const. Heat Addition Process const. Coefficient of Performance...
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...air-to-fuel ratio very close to the "stoichiometric" point, which is the calculated ideal ratio of air to fuel. Theoretically, at this ratio, all of the fuel will be burned using all of the oxygen in the air. [For petrol, the stoichiometric ratio is about 14.7 to 1, meaning that for each pound of fuel, 14.7 pounds of air will be burned. The fuel mixture actually varies from the ideal ratio quite a bit during driving. Sometimes the mixture can be "lean" (an air-to-fuel ratio higher than 14.7); and other times the mixture can be "rich" (an air-to-fuel ratio lower than 14.7).] Most modern cars are equipped with three-way catalytic converters. "Three-way" refers to the three regulated emissions it helps to reduce - carbon monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide molecules. The converter uses two different types of catalysts, a reduction catalyst and an oxidization catalyst. Both types consist of a ceramic structure coated with a metal catalyst, usually platinum, rhodium and/or palladium. The idea is to create a structure that exposes the maximum surface area of the catalyst to the exhaust stream, while also minimising the amount of catalyst required (they are very expensive). There are three main types of structures used in catalytic converters - ceramic honeycomb, metal plate and ceramic beads (now almost obsolete) - the Scorpio like most cars today use a ceramic honeycomb structure. CATALYTIC...
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...(interact with) water. Hydrophobic (hydro=water; phobio=fear): Hydrophobic molecules or parts of molecules will refuse to interact with water. If sufficiently hydrophobic, a molecule or part of a molecule will actively repel or exclude water. Hydrophilic/phobic characters are not an all-or-none phenomenon. Molecules fall along a scale, somewhere between extremely hydrophobic and extremely hydrophilic. Changing the parts of a molecule will often shift it more toward the hydrophobic or the hydrophilic end of the scale (depending upon the change). B. Hydrocarbons. The basic skeletons of organic molecules are composed of hydrocarbon. Hydrocarbon is made only of the elements carbon and hydrogen. Since carbon atoms all have the same electronegativity, and the electronegativity of hydrogen is only slightly different than that of carbon, the bonds in hydrocarbons are all non-polar. Thus, hydrocarbons tend to be hydrophobic,...
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...Macroscopic physical properties such as melting and boiling points depend on the strengths of the forces which hold microscopic particles together. In the case of molecules whose atoms are connected by covalent bonds, such intermolecular forces may be of three types. All molecules are attracted together by weak London forces. These depend on instantaneous polarization and increase in strength with the size of the molecular electron cloud. When a molecule contains atoms whose electronegativities differ significantly and the resulting bond dipoles do not cancel each other’s effects, dipole forces occur. This results in higher melting and boiling points than for nonpolar substances. The third type of intermolecular force, the hydrogen bond, occurs when one molecule contains a hydrogen atom connected to a highly electronegative partner. The other molecule must contain an electronegative atom, like fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen, which has a lone pair. Although each hydrogen bond is weak compared with a covalent bond, large numbers of hydrogen bonds can have very significant effects. One example of this is in the properties of water. This highly unusual liquid plays a major role in making living systems and the earth’s environment behave as they do. Carbon normally forms four bonds, and carbon-carbon bonds are quite strong, allowing formation of long chains to which side branches and a variety of functional groups may be attached. Hence the number of molecular structures which can...
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...AS/A Level GCE GCE Chemistry A OCR Advanced Subsidiary GCE in Chemistry A H034 OCR Advanced GCE in Chemistry A H434 Vertical black lines indicate a significant change to the previous printed version. © OCR 2008 version 2 – February 2008 QAN 500/2425/5 QAN 500/2347/0 Contents 1 About these Qualifications 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 The Three-Unit AS The Six-Unit Advanced GCE Qualification Titles and Levels Aims Prior Learning/Attainment 4 4 4 5 5 5 2 Summary of Content 2.1 2.2 AS Units A2 Units 6 6 7 3 Unit Content 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 AS Unit F321: Atoms, Bonds and Groups AS Unit F322: Chains, Energy and Resources AS Unit F323: Practical Skills in Chemistry 1 A2 Unit F324: Rings, Polymers and Analysis A2 Unit F325: Equilibria, Energetics and Elements A2 Unit F326: Practical Skills in Chemistry 2 8 8 20 38 40 51 62 4 Schemes of Assessment 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 AS GCE Scheme of Assessment Advanced GCE Scheme of Assessment Unit Order Unit Options (at AS/A2) Synoptic Assessment (A Level GCE) Assessment Availability Assessment Objectives Quality of Written Communication 64 64 65 66 66 66 67 67 68 5 Technical Information 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 Making Unit Entries Making Qualification Entries Grading Result Enquiries and Appeals Shelf-life of Units Unit and Qualification Re-sits Guided Learning Hours Code of Practice/Subject Criteria/Common Criteria Requirements Arrangements for Candidates with Particular...
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...Over the last few years Kazakhstan has implemented foreign policies aimed to improve relations with a vast array of new geopolitical actors, besides common partners such as Russia, on which the Central Asian country was formerly heavily dependent. Using its huge potential in the hydrocarbon industry, Kazakhstan has managed to rise above all other Central Asian states in terms of political and economic importance and has turned its eyes to China as an important and powerful partner for cooperation in the economic, political, and security spheres. This article on Kazakhstan and China was written by Fabio Belafatti, and originally published by our knowledge partner "Equilibri" at the following address: http://www.equilibri.net/nuovo/sites/default/files/focus_belafatti_china%20kazakhstan.pdf The “Kazakh path” (with its contradictions) and Kazakh-Chinese relations In recent years Kazakhstan has become an important actor in regional international relations in Central Asia. The country's improvements have been underscored by international observers in many occasions. It is undeniable that compared to the rest of the region, Kazakhstan shows much higher levels of development. In purely macroeconomic terms, Kazakhstan’s economy is the largest in Central Asia and has shown very high growth levels for many years, recovering very fast when hit by the world economic crisis. In broader terms, Kazakhstan’s success is underscored by the fact that it is the only country in the region...
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...July. Habitats for hundreds of thousands of animals are destroyed. Land is destroyed and we are expected to see effects of this for years to come. The Exxon Valdez spill was over 20 years ago and there is still evidence of that spill in Alaska. These and many other oil spills and leaks affect our drinking water, the fish and other water creatures we eat. It affects the livelihood of the fisherman. It affects the health of the people that live near these waters and the people that love to be in the water. Many health problems today are a result of oil spills/contamination in our water. It is expected that many health problems will continue to steadily increase due to these oil spills. Studies have shown exposure to certain hydrocarbons and other compounds found in oil are known to cause...
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