To what extent has Indigenous tourism either empowered or exploited Indigenous communities in Australia or internationally. In your discussion refer to at least two case studies of Indigenous tourism.
Both past and present, Indigenous culture is becoming increasingly recognised as a significant aspect of the Australian tourism product and experience (Johnston 2006). Therefore, in order to manage the long-term sustainability of Indigenous tourism and involvement of host communities in the tourism industry, the socio-cultural impacts of tourism on Indigenous communities need to be addressed and monitored (Hodgson, Firth & Presbury 2005). Research conducted by various authors have identified positive impacts commonly associated with Indigenous tourism on host communities including conservation of traditional customs and cultural heritage (Tomaselli 2012), sense of community pride, cross-cultural understanding, maintaining community stability and the broadening of horizons (Hodgson, Firth & Presbury 2005). As a result, host communities may recognise the significance and economic value of their cultural heritage. Thus, tourism may come to play a vital role in promoting cross-cultural exchange, education and preservation of Indigenous communities. Conversely, much of the literature regarding this topic suggests that the negative sociocultural impacts outweigh the benefits seen as a result of Indigenous tourism which include disruption to daily life and traditional lifestyles, overcrowding, loss of amenities for residents, increased resentment, and hostility towards tourists (Hodgson, Firth & Presbury 2005). In addition, Archer and Cooper (1994) linked tourism to numerous social problems such as prostitution, drugs, crime and alcoholism.
This paper will discuss from an ethical standpoint, to what extent has Indigenous tourism either empowered or exploited Indigenous communities in Australia through the analysis of two case studies on Indigenous tourism in the Manyallaluk community in Northern Territory and Mt Warning National Park in the Far North Coast of New South Wales. For the purpose of this paper, an ‘Indigenous community is defined to be one bounded by physical or cadastral (legal) boundaries, and inhabited or intended to be inhabited predominantly (ie greater than 50 per cent of usual residents) by Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander peoples’ (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2001, cited in Buultjens & Fuller 2007, p. 5). Secondly, Indigenous tourism is defined as ‘all forms of participation by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in tourism: as employer, as employees, as investors, as joint venture partners, providing Indigenous cultural tourism products, and providing mainstream tourism products’ (ATSIC 1997, cited in Buultjens & Fuller 2007 p. 215) .
Manyallaluk is a small Aboriginal community with a population of approximately 150 people, located 100km south east of Katherine, in the Northern Territory, Australia, and has been involved in the Indigenous tourism trade since the mid 1980’s (Hodgson, Firth & Presbury 2005). Prior to the establishment of tourism in Manyallaluk, the Indigenous residents worked in mining, sawmills and mustering cattle. However, as a result of Indigenous tourism to the community, residents identified positive impacts including, ‘the revitalisation of Manyallaluk culture, the promotion of cross-cultural understanding, improved English skills, and the preservation of cultural traditions… the creation of direct and indirect employment opportunities… community members felt very strongly about the positive impacts that tourism had on their culture… tourism has instilled a sense of pride in many of the local residents because of their opportunity to share their culture with visitors’ (Hodgson, Firth & Presbury 2005, pp. 309-10). As Aboriginal people have a strong attachment to sense of place (Schweinsberg, Wearing & Darcy 2011), here, it may be suggested Indigenous tourism has empowered the residents of Manyallaluk and has given a sense of ownership of place, resulting in increased self-confidence and reasserting their ethnic identity.
On the contrary, the case study revealed several negative sociocultural impacts of tourism on the community, such as stress caused by tourist-host interaction, disrespectful behaviour by some visitors, conflicts due to jealousy induced by the working environment in tourism, pressures from the government placed on community enterprises, and a gap was identified between the tourists’ expectations and the tourism product offered (Hodgson, Firth & Presbury 2005). Furthermore, signs of cultural exploitation were identified, one female Aboriginal resident commented: ‘Women are not allowed to play the didgeridoo. That’s another thing that really feels very offended when women tourists play the didgeridoo. Because it is only for men’ (Hodgson, Firth & Presbury 2005, p. 314).
There are numerous implications of tourism in the Manyallaluk community, it may be suggested that the communities positive attitude towards the tourists may be due to the clear division of the private community area and tourism area which allows for privacy. However, to ensure this is maintained, this case study indicates that Indigenous communities need to set clear boundaries between their private community and the tourism area and the contents of the tourism product needs to reflect the wishes of the community (Hodgson, Firth & Presbury 2005); thereby reducing the exploitation of Indigenous culture. Throughout time, ethical norms and principles have developed across cultures, thus, visitors to the Manyallaluk community must appreciate that their actions have the ability to both negatively and positively impact on the residents and the environment. As a result, they may inhibit progress towards sustainability, since tourism will not thrive without the support of host communities. Therefore, drawing on the theories of consequentialism, tourists must behave morally and respectfully when interacting with the Indigenous culture rather than undermining, traditional values and practices.
In Australia, the Indigenous community and the tourism industry often have widely differing viewpoints on the use of protected areas, and despite efforts to involve Indigenous groups in joint management agreements, Indigenous people are often overlooked in order to satisfy the demands of other stakeholders (Russell-Mundine 2007). This seems to be the case at Mt Warning National Park; located on the Far North Coast of New South Wales. The park is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the area, receiving in excess of 100,000 visitors per year (Gale & Buultjens 2005). Mt Warning National Park has considerable Indigenous cultural heritage and the local Indigenous community would like to have the track closed; however, doing so would be controversial because the majority of tourists that visit the site arrive with the sole purpose of climbing the summit (Gale & Buultjens 2005). Here, it appears that traditional values are overshadowed by the tourism values, which has led to the exploitation of the Aboriginal culture and the environment. Furthermore, despite awareness of Indigenous cultural heritage, the majority of visitors continue to climb Mt Warning, even after learning of its importance to the Indigenous community (Gale & Buultjens 2005). If appropriate action is not taken it is likely significant negative impacts may occur such as loss of privacy in recreational, socialising and gathering places, desecration and theft, decline in quality and loss of cultural integrity (Singh 2012). Such implications may have damaging effects between the local Indigenous community and the tourists that visit the park. It has been mentioned, many non-Indigenous Australians are unaware of the history of dispossession that Indigenous communities have endured since colonisation, and due to this insufficient knowledge, may lack insight into the Aboriginal perspective of ‘land’ (Behrendt 2003, cited in Buuljens & Fuller 2007). Therefore, educating visitors about Indigenous culture may be a solution to assist in reducing the number of visitors who climb Mt Warning. However, if governments are serious about involving the Indigenous community in the management process of protected areas, ultimately, some decisions that may be deemed politically unpopular need to be implemented.
From an ethical standpoint, it may be argued that the majority of visitors refuse to respect the wishes of the Indigenous people which has led to disputes and resentment towards the tourism sector at Mt Warning National Park (Gale & Buultjens 2005). It is important for individuals to be aware of their moral responsibilities and put themselves in a position to make ethical decisions that best satisfies both themselves, and the requirements of the local Indigenous community.
In conclusion, after analysing two differing case studies, it may be suggested that Indigenous tourism has the potential to impact negatively on residents if community involvement is neglected and the appropriate measurements are not executed. The negative sociocultural impacts include disruption to daily life and traditional lifestyles, overcrowding, loss of amenities for residents, increased resentment, and hostility towards tourists (Hodgson, Firth & Presbury 2005). On the contrary, because Indigenous people have a strong attachment to sense of place, when managed correctly, Indigenous tourism has the ability to have many positive impacts that empower communities, instilling sense of pride and self-confidence to the Indigenous people. Evidently, Indigenous culture is becoming increasingly recognised as a significant aspect of the Australian tourism industry (Johnston 2006); therefore, in order to manage the long-term sustainability of Indigenous tourism relevant stakeholders must collaboratively work towards ethical practices that meet the requirements for all parties concerned.

References
Archer, B. & Cooper, C. 1994, ‘The Positive and Negative Impacts of Tourism’ In Theobald, W (ed) Global Tourism: The Next Decade, Butterworth Heinemann: Oxford, pp. 73-91.
Gale, D. & Buultjens, J ‘Mt Warning Visitation and Indigenous concerns: Visitors perceptions’, Striving for sustainability: Case studies in Indigenous tourism. Southern Cross University Press, Lismore, NSW, chap. 8, pp. 247-90.
Hodgson, R., Firth, T. & Presbury, R. ‘Aboriginal cultural tourism in the Northern Territory: Sociocultural impacts of tourism on the Manyallaluk community’, Striving for sustainability: Case studies in Indigenous tourism. Southern Cross University Press, Lismore, NSW chap.9, pp. 291-332.
Johnston, A. M. 2005, Is the sacred for sale?: Tourism and indigenous peoples. Earthscan, London.
Russell-Mundine, G. 2007, Key factors for the successful development of Australian indigenous entrepreneurship, Tourism: An International Interdisciplinary Journal, Vol. 55, No. 4 pp. 417-29.
Schweinsberg, S., Wearing, S. and Darcy, S. 2011, Understanding the Communities' Views of Nature in Rural Industry Renewal: A Case Study on the Transition from Forestry to Nature-Based Tourism in Eden, Australia, Journal of Sustainable Tourism.
Singh, T.V. 2012, Critical Debates in Tourism, Channel View Publication, Bristol, Buffalo.
Tomaselli, K.G. 2012, Cultural Tourism and Identity: Rethinking Indigeneity. Leiden, Boston.