...The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Some Ethical Reflections 75 The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Some Ethical Reflections Adebayo A. Ogungbure Department of Philosophy University of Ibadan, Nigeria philosopher.bayo@yahoo.com Thought and Practice: A Journal of the Philosophical Association of Kenya (PAK) New Series, Vol.3 No.2, December 2011, pp.75-92 thoughtandpractice@gmail.com http://ajol.info/index.php/tp/index Abstract There are established ethical principles to protect human participants in biomedical research from undue exploitation by researchers. However, in the “Tuskegee Study” in the US, these principles were grossly violated. The task of this paper is to critically examine the ethical implications of that study on future practices in biomedical research, and to suggest ways of ensuring that such practices comply with appropriate ethical values. Key Words Bioethics, Biomedical research, clinical research, Tuskegee Study, paternalism, morality Introduction From time to time human beings experience health challenges, whether physical or mental. On its part, medical practice has made considerable progress towards combating or controlling many of these challenges. It is through research that the nature, symptoms and effects of ailments can be ascertained and remedies discovered. Medical researchers engage in both therapeutic and non-therapeutic research. Therapeutic research is that carried out with the purpose of treating disease. On the other hand...
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...The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Some Ethical Reflections 75 The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Some Ethical Reflections Adebayo A. Ogungbure Department of Philosophy University of Ibadan, Nigeria philosopher.bayo@yahoo.com Thought and Practice: A Journal of the Philosophical Association of Kenya (PAK) New Series, Vol.3 No.2, December 2011, pp.75-92 thoughtandpractice@gmail.com http://ajol.info/index.php/tp/index Abstract There are established ethical principles to protect human participants in biomedical research from undue exploitation by researchers. However, in the “Tuskegee Study” in the US, these principles were grossly violated. The task of this paper is to critically examine the ethical implications of that study on future practices in biomedical research, and to suggest ways of ensuring that such practices comply with appropriate ethical values. Key Words Bioethics, Biomedical research, clinical research, Tuskegee Study, paternalism, morality Introduction From time to time human beings experience health challenges, whether physical or mental. On its part, medical practice has made considerable progress towards combating or controlling many of these challenges. It is through research that the nature, symptoms and effects of ailments can be ascertained and remedies discovered. Medical researchers engage in both therapeutic and non-therapeutic research. Therapeutic research is that carried out with the purpose of treating disease. On the other hand, non-therapeutic...
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...From time to time human beings experience health challenges, whether physical or mental. On its part, medical practice has made considerable progress towards combating or controlling many of these challenges. It is through research that the nature, symptoms and effects of ailments can be ascertained and remedies discovered. Medical researchers engage in both therapeutic and non-therapeutic research. Therapeutic research is that carried out with the purpose of treating disease. On the other hand, non-therapeutic research is aimed at 76 Adebayo A. Ogungbure furthering the frontiers of knowledge about human health. Furthermore, researchers and physicians often use human beings as objects of scientific investigation, raising certain ethical concerns, including the issue of informed consent and how consent is obtained, selection of participants in research, the welfare of human subjects involved in a research project, what the goals of research ought to be, and what ought to constitute proper procedure for an ethical research. These issues are central to an aspect of applied ethics which is now commonly referred to as research ethics. The aim of research ethics is to ensure that research projects involving human subjects are carried out without causing harm to the subjects involved. In addition, it provides a sort of regulatory framework which ensures that human participants in research are not exploited either physically or psychologically. The need for ethical guidelines...
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...Elizabeth Reynolds Writing 5 Essay One Assignment: The Tuskegee Study Free at Last: the Center for Disease Control Ends and Ethical Research Practices Begin During the forty year Tuskegee Study, the government overstepped its duties and infringed on innocent African American lives. Researchers in Macon County, Alabama started this study in 1932 in order to examine the effects of untreated syphilis in African American men. The study began with 399 subjects with the disease and 201 without it; by the time the research was halted in 1972, over one hundred of the men had died (Jones 2). One government organization involved in this experimentation acted particularly irrationally: the Center for Disease Control (CDC). The CDC knew exactly what was going on with the Tuskegee Experiment and understood that the subjects were being denied treatment. However, the CDC never questioned the morality of their experiment. Furthermore, the director at the time, Dr. David Sencer, was an advocate for continuing the research. Even when Dr. Irwin J. Schatz, staff member of the Henry Ford Hospital, first sent his letter to the CDC objecting to the Tuskegee study in 1964, Dr. Sencer allowed the CDC to set the letter aside and pretend it did not exist. When another opponent of the study, Peter Buxton, started his 1965 investigation of the study, Sencer’s first concern was not that the CDC was acting unethically, but that the CDC would get bad press (Jones 190). Clearly the CDC was not actually...
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...Tuskegee University Brimmer College of Business Administration and Information Science Fall 2015 BUSN 0408 Course Syllabus ------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------- Course: BUSN 0408 – Marketing Research ------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------- Instructor: Dr. Jack Crumbly ------------------------------------------------- Office hours: MW 11:00AM - 1:00PM, T: 10:00AM-12:00PM F: 11:00AM-12:00PM or by appointment ------------------------------------------------- Office location: College of Business Room 208 ------------------------------------------------- Phone: 334-727-8733 ------------------------------------------------- Email: crumblyj@mytu.tuskegee.edu ------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------- Textbooks: Basic Marketing Research Using Microsoft Excel Data Analysis, 3rd edition by Alvin C. Burns and Ronald F. Bush; Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc. ------------------------------------------------- ISBN: 978-0-13-507822-8 ------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------- Course Description & Purpose The purpose of this course is to provide you with the knowledge and skills necessary to conduct a market research project from its inception...
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...commanding presence and oratory deeply moved his contemporaries. His writings continue to influence readers today. Although Washington claimed his autobiography was “a simple, straightforward story, with no attempt at embellishment,” readers for nearly a century have found it richly rewarding. Today, Up From Slavery appeals to a wide audience from early adolescence through adulthood. More important, however, is the inspiration his story of hard work and positive goals gives to all readers. His life is an example providing hope to all. The complexity and contradictions of his life make his autobiography intellectually intriguing for advanced readers. To some he was known as the Sage of Tuskegee or the Black Moses. One of his prominent biographers, Louis R. Harlan, called him the “Wizard of the Tuskegee Machine.” Others acknowledged him to be a complicated person and public figure. Students of American social and political history have come to see that Washington lived a double life. Publicly he appeased the white establishment by remaining cautious in his charges and demands. Privately he worked tirelessly to undo the effects of institutional and cultural racism. Although he seemed to have made a grand compromise, first with the white south and then with white America, he worked in deepest secret to undermine the compromise and advance the social and economic position of blacks. No doubt exists as to his greatness....
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...W.E.B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington could be considered the “twin towers” when it comes to black history in America during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Although from different generations, their attention focused on the African-American struggle for political, social and economic equality. However, they sharply disagreed on strategies for black social and economic progress; to better understand their opposing philosophies, it is helpful to also consider their radically different backgrounds, which influenced their world-views. W.E.B. Du Bois was born in Massachusetts, three years after the end of the Civil War. His great-grandfather had fought in the American Revolution and his family had been part of the community for generations. Du Bois learned of his African roots from his grandmother, and was given a sense of destiny from his mother, who raised him after his father left home. Du Bois was a brilliant young man, working as a correspondent for New York newspapers while still in high school, and, with the help of influential members of his community, went to Fisk University in Nashville. His years at Fisk changed his life – there Du Bois met sons and daughters of former slaves, who embodied the cultural and spiritual tradition that Du Bois had glimpsed as a child. He also encountered the White South, and saw how they were destroying the achievements of Reconstruction. He saw the suffering of rural blacks when he taught school during the summers...
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...Washington’s views on racial uplifting and education concept. Now the question stands as follows: Was W.E.B Dubois’ criticism towards Washington unfair or accurate? Well, Dubois’ criticisms towards Washington was both accurate and unfair, but mostly accurate. Up From Slavery depicts Booker T. Washington as both an accommodationist and a realist whom tries to strategize ways for blacks to make it out the struggle even though race relations were at its lowest point at the time. The autobiography also describes in detail his gradual and steady rise from a slave child during the Civil War, to the trials and tribulations he had to conquer to attain an education at the new Hampton University, to his work establishing vocational schools such as the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, and to helping black people and other disadvantaged minorities learn useful, marketable skills and work to pull themselves, as a race, up out of the gutter. Washington was certainly a major figure in his time due to the fact that ideas for black civil rights was in need of a more driven approach. Most critiques of him mainly talk about his accommodationism, but his life outside of being an abolitionist was also targeted. The Atlanta Compromise represented Booker T. Washington's strategy for addressing the "Negroe problem" and has been...
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...Two great leaders of the black community in the late 19th and 20th century were Booker T. Washington and W.E.B Du Bois. The men had many ideas; however, they sharply disagreed on the approaches to black education. Washington, committed to vocational education, trained blacks on low end jobs, and Du Bois believed in academic education in favor of trade school. Both Washington and Du Bois wanted the same thing for blacks, first-class citizenship, but their contrasting views in black education required different ways of obtaining it. Booker T. Washington’s commitment to agricultural and industrial educations was the basis of his approach. He was founder and principal of Tuskegee Institute, a normal and industrial school in Alabama. Students would receive instruction in thirty-three trades and industries, including carpentry, blacksmithing, printing, and machinery to name a few. His school aimed to train African-Americans in the skills that would help them the most in everyday practical things of life. “…the policy of industrial schools- fitting students for occupations which would be open to them in their home communities (Washington, 4).” For example, in the South there was a demand for men to operate dairies in a skillful, modern manner. This resulted in Washington adding a dairy department in connection with the school that instructed a number of young men in the latest and scientific methods of dairy work. He does not agree with the notion that many think industrial...
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...goals. Booker T. Washington was born a slave and he worked his way up the ladder. I believe because of this Washington’s ideologies are much more accommodating to whites. Having to live the life of a slave is something Du Bois didn’t experience and therefore couldn’t understand Washington’s submissive state of mind, ideologies, and goals for the black community. I want this to be clear that I am not agreeing with Washington on the matters of blacks, but I sympathize with him having knowing why he had such ideas. In Washington’s book, “Up From Slavery,” we get a glimpse into Washington’s upbringing and can begin to understand why he is considered an accommodator. We also get to see where some of his ideas began. Washington founded the Tuskegee institute in which goals were to educate African Americans in a practical way for which they would receive work. This to me was one way of accommodating whites because why not give them a real education as other schools had. I know that people had to make a living, but I consider this a way of keeping things alright with the whites, insuring that blacks are not going to rise up because they are not getting educated they are simply being taught to work for the white man, to be a slave to the white man in a different manner, therefore keeping the power with that white man. His teachings are well accepted by whites, because blacks are still under their control and nothing has changed. Washington is an accommodator because he made favors...
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...Valley Bound Essay There is this game called sixty-four squares. Well it is not necessarily a game, but a reflection of decisions, on choices, and on life. It is an activity that spotlights your past, to congratulate your present, and help prepare for your future. It’s an activity that we are going to play today. The concept of the game is to make an eight by eight square with paper on the floor, and create a pathway to get to the other side. The object of the game is to create a story to get your audience intrigued. Our story will be about me, surrounding my high school experience. So the rules are as follows, you are only allowed to go up, back, and to the side. You are not allowed to go horizontal, or skip two squares up. Our objective...
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...the traditional methods so that the barriers prevalent in the process of recruitment and retention can be overcome. Some of these barriers are related to mistrust and fear of science-based experiments following a history of atrocities committed in the name of science (Area, Alvidrez, Nery, Estes, & Linkins, 2003). This essay is going to highlight the strategies to increase recruitment and retention of minority people participation in clinical trials. Discussion Background Ethical consideration in medical research and clinical trials particularly with regard to humans came into the limelight in the first half of the 20th century following the medical experiments conducted by the Nazis on humans. These experiments saw the development of the Nuremberg code, which began a wide range of regulations that emphasized on the need for the protection of human beings who participated in trials that were prevalent in medical research. Principles that were articulated under the code converged to respect and justice for humans undertaking the clinical trials. However, the adoption of these principles did not stop dubious clinicians from conducting a research dubbed Tuskegee experiment on a large number of African-American who had hitherto been diagnosed with syphilis. These patients were left untreated for years so that the researchers...
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...Bibliographic Essay on African American History Introduction In the essay “On the Evolution of Scholarship in Afro- American History” the eminent historian John Hope Franklin declared “Every generation has the opportunity to write its own history, and indeed it is obliged to do so.”1 The social and political revolutions of 1960s have made fulfilling such a responsibility less daunting than ever. Invaluable references, including Darlene Clark Hine, ed. Black Women in America: An Historical Encyclopedia 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004); Evelyn Brooks Higgingbotham, ed., Harvard Guide to African American History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001); Arvarh E. Strickland and Robert E. Weems, Jr., eds., The African American Experience: An Historiographical and Bibliographical Guide (Westport: Greenwood Press, 2001); and Randall M. Miller and John David Smith, eds., Dictionary of Afro- American Slavery (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1988), provide informative narratives along with expansive bibliographies. General texts covering major historical events with attention to chronology include John Hope Franklin and Alfred A. Moss, Jr., From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2000), considered a classic; along with Joe William Trotter, Jr., The African American 1  Experience (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001); and, Darlene Clark Hine, William C. Hine, and Stanley Harrold, The...
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...Running head: Transcultural Nursing Assessment Transcultural Nursing Assessment Deborah Hill St. Francis University Abstract Giger and Davidhizar’s Transcultural Assessment Model is a valuable and functional assessment tool that evaluates the different cultural variables and how those variables effect health, illness and behaviors (Giger, 2013). This philosophy considers the uniqueness of each individual, understanding that the individual is unique, a product of their culture, religion, environment socioeconomic status and diversity. Giger and Dividhizar propose that, as health care providers, we need an acute awareness of the ethnicity and culture of each individual, having the knowledge and understanding to care for them as their culture, religion, values and belief system necessitates (Giger & Davidhizar, 2002). This model of nursing assessment focuses on six factors, or phenomena, that address important areas of cultural influence which impact our ability to provide diverse clients with the most effective and efficient care. The six phenomena are communication; space; social organization; time; environmental control; and biological variations. This assignment involves the use of the Transcultural Nursing Assessment model in the care of Ms. B, an 82 year old, African American female. Introduction America has been called the melting pot of the world. The term indicates that America is a county made up of immigrant cultures, religions and various ethnic...
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...CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER ANSWER KEY CHAPTER 1 ANSWERS FOR THE MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. b The sociological perspective is an approach to understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context. (4) 2 . d Sociologists consider occupation, income, education, gender, age, and race as dimensions of social location.(4) 3. d All three statements reflect ways in which the social sciences are like the natural sciences. Both attempt to study and understand their subjects objectively; both attempt to undercover the relationships that create order in their respective worlds through controlled observation; and both are divided into many specialized fields. (5-7) 4. c Generalization is one of the goals of scientific inquiry. It involves going beyond individual cases by making statements that apply to broader groups or situations. (7) 5. b The Industrial Revolution, imperialism, and the development of the scientific method all contributed to the development of sociology. The fourth influence was the political revolutions in America and France — there was no political revolution in Britain at that time. (8-9) 6. d Positivism is the application of the scientific approach to the social world. (9) 7. d Of the four statements, the one that best reflects Herbert Spencer’s views on charity is “The poor are the weakest members of society and if society intervenes to help them, it is interrupting the natural process of social evolution.” While many contemporaries of Spencer’s were...
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