...MINICHROMOSOMES: THE NEXT GENERATION TECHNOLOGY FOR PLANT GENETIC ENGINEERING Genetic transformation occurs frequently in nature in prokaryotes. The transfer of genes from one organism to another is termed horizontal gene transfer1. For example, bacteria can acquire virulence factors, as well as antibiotic resistance genes, which may lead to the breakdown of the efficacy of antibiotics. Horizontal gene transfers are rare in higher eukaryotes, but years ago scientists found that a pathogenic bacterium, Agrobacterium, could transfer genes from its genome to its plant hosts, where expression of the transferred genes caused crown gall disease2. The development of Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation, and direct transformation by biolistics, i.e., the high velocity delivery of DNA attached to metal particles, led to the first generation of transgenic plants and the rapid application of this technology to crop improvement. Genetic engineering as a driving force for modern agriculture Genetic engineering is a powerful tool for improving crop quality and productivity, and reducing labor and resource utilization of farming. For example, farmers saved up to an estimated 60% of costs for pest control by growing Bt (insect resistance) cotton in certain regions of the US in 1997, according to a USDA report3. The reduction of pesticide spray has other safety benefits for both the environment and humans. Because of these and other benefits, the adoption of three primary GE crops...
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...how to incorporate DNA data into diagnostic and therapeutic medicine. Bioethics deals with issues of privacy, discrimination, and justice that arise from use and misuse of genetic information. DNA, genes, chromosomes, and genomes are the levels of genetic information, and they impact biology at the cell, tissue, organ, individual, family, and population levels. Genes encode proteins, and the exome is the small part of the genome that does so. Most traits arise from interactions of genes and environmental factors. Genetic information is in health care to identify individuals, in investigating the environment, and in understanding evolution. CHAPTER OUTLINE 1.1 Introducing Genes and Genomes 1. Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with inherited traits and their variation, and how these traits are passed from one generation to the next (heredity). 2. With continuing analysis of human genome sequences, human genetics has grown from a largely academic science to touch many areas of medicine, with practical and societal implications. 3. Genes are the unit of inheritance and are composed of DNA. 4. An organism’s genome is its complete set of genetic information. 5. Genomics is a field of study that reveals how closely related we are to each other and to other species. 6. Bioethics is a...
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...while on the contrary remaining “dormant” when not in need. This has been accomplished at the molecular level by configuring clusters of genes together on the genome into operons that elicit a processive response in the presence of a specific metabolite. The Lac operon is responsible for the cleaving of the disaccharide lactose into two products. A myriad of components control the expression of the Lac operon when two conditions are met. First, the substrate, lactose, must be present. Second, no better substrate for example, glucose, is present (2). The three structural genes in the Lac operon are lacZ, lacY, and lacA. The gene lacZ encodes the tetramer, ß-galactosidase, which is responsible for hydrolyzing the ß-1,4 glycosidic linkage between galactose and glucose in lactose. The transport of lactose into the cell via the enzyme lactose permease is encoded by the gene lacY. The lacA gene encodes the enzyme, galactoside transacetylase, a trimer that transfers an acetyl group from acetyl-CoA to galactosides. Activation of these genes is dependent on the activity of a promoter and three operators based on the nutritional and environmental conditions available to the cell. The lac operon is a negatively controlled inducible operon that utilizes the product of the regulator gene lacI, to repress RNA polymerase from transcribing the lacZYA genes. The three operators involved in the lac operon: O1, O2, and O3 serve as binding sites for lacI and when bound repression is exhibited. Originally...
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...Variation – any difference existing between individuals of the same species * Chromosome – rod-shaped body in the nucleus of eukaryotes and prokaryotes that contains the hereditary units or genes seen particularly during cell division * Gene – the unit or heredity occupying a particular location on the chromosome and passed on to offspring * Locus – the location of a gene on a chromosome * Diploid – the 2N number of chromosomes; twice the number of chromosomes found in gametes * Haploid – the N number of chromosomes; half the diploid number; the number characteristic of gametes that contain only one set of chromosomes * F1 generation – first filial generation; the first-generation offspring of a genetic cross that has at least two generation * F2 generation – second filial generation; the second-generation offspring of a genetic cross * Homozygous – a pair of similar of like genes for any one character * Heterozygous – a pair of contrasting traits of two kinds of genes * Genotype – the particular genes of an individual that determine a specific trait * Phenotype – the outward appearance of an organism, caused by genetic and environmental influences * Allele – a pair of similar or contrasting character; one of two or more alternative states of gene * Dominant allele – hereditary factor that expresses itself when the genotype is heterozygous * Recessive allele – hereditary factor that expresses itself only when the genotype...
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...Unit II: Genetics Brief Overview Reading: Chapters 3, 4, 9-12, 14 (Note: you have reviewed much of this already) The earth is teeming with living things. We can easily see some of the larger organisms—trees, grass, flowers, weeds, cats, fish, squirrels, dogs, insects, spiders, snails, mushrooms, lichens. Other organisms are everywhere, in the air, in water, soil and on our skin, but are too small to see with the naked eye—bacteria, viruses, protists (single celled eukaryotes such as amoebae), and tiny plants and animals. Life is remarkable in its complexity and diversity, and yet it all boils down to a very simple idea—the instructions for making all this life are written in nucleic acids, usually DNA. Most organisms have a set of DNA that contains the instructions for making that creature. This DNA contains four “letters” in which these instructions are written—A, T, G, and C. The only difference between the code for a dog and the code for a geranium is in the order of those letters in the code. If you took the DNA from a human and rearranged the letters in the right way, you could produce an oak tree—arrange them slightly differently and you would have a bumble bee—arrange them again and you would have the instructions for making a bacterium. Acting through more than two billion years, the process of evolution has taken one basic idea—a molecular code that uses four letters—and used it over and over, in millions of combinations to produce a dazzling array of life forms...
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...polynucleotides, each a chain of nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a sugar, and a phosphate group. Nucleotides are joined together by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next. This results in a sugar-phosphate backbone, a repeating pattern of sugar-phosphate-sugar phosphate. The name, DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid, with nucleic referring to DNA’s location in the nuclei of eukaryotic cells. How does an organism’s genotype determine its phenotype? Genotype is an organism’s full hereditary information and Phenotype is an organism’s actual observed properties. Phenotypes are dependent on the genes they inherit. However their expression is also influenced by environmental factors. The influence of the environment modifies the role that the genes play to a certain...
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...Guanine(G), Cytosine(C), Thymine(T) 5. Name the four nucleotides of RNA? Adenine(A), Guanine(G), Cytosine(C), Uracil(U) 6. Name the two purine nitrogen bases? Adenine and Guanine. 7. Name the three pyrimidine nitrogen bases? Uracil, Thymine, and Cytosine. 8. Make a model of a DNA. KEY: Orange= Phosphate, Blue & Black= Sugar, Green= Guanine, Red= Adenine, Purple= Thymine, Yellow= Cytosine. 9. Write your DNA model sequence and give a replica or copy of it. ACGTAC= TGCATG 10. Transcribe your DNA into an mRNA. UGCAUG 11. Translate the mRNA into a protein or polypeptide- you need the genetic code. CYS. MET. 12. Why is it that no two organisms are exactly the same? Since no two organisms have the same DNA sequence then no two organisms are the same. 13. Name and describe the two steps of gene expression. Transcription is the process that changes the DNA into RNA. Translation is the process that creates a protein out of the RNA. 14. What is a mutation? Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence. 15. Using a hypothetical DNA, show examples of point mutations and frameshift DNA mutations. Cystic fibrosis, Cancer, HIV, Cures 16. Using a hypothetical chromosome, explain the four types of chromosomal mutations. Insertion mutation, a sizable length of DNA is inserted into a gene. Deletion mutations, segments of a gene are lost, often during meiosis. Duplication is a doubling of a section of the...
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...Hindawi Publishing Corporation Obstetrics and Gynecology International Volume 2013, Article ID 173184, 11 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/173184 Review Article Uterine Fibroids: Pathogenesis and Interactions with Endometrium and Endomyometrial Junction Andrea Ciavattini,1 Jacopo Di Giuseppe,1 Piergiorgio Stortoni,1 Nina Montik,1 Stefano R. Giannubilo,1 Pietro Litta,2 Md. Soriful Islam,3 Andrea L. Tranquilli,1 Fernando M. Reis,4 and Pasquapina Ciarmela3 1 Woman’s Health Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine, Polytechnic University of Marche, Via Corridoni 11, 60123 Ancona, Italy Department of Gynaecological Sciences and Human Reproduction, University of Padova, Via Giustiniani 3, 35128 Padova, Italy 3 Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Polytechnic University of Marche, Via Tronto 10/a, 60126 Ancona, Italy 4 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Federal University of Minas Gerais and National Institute of Hormones and Women’s Health, 30130-100 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil 2 Correspondence should be addressed to Andrea Ciavattini; ciavattini.a@libero.it Received 28 February 2013; Revised 10 June 2013; Accepted 13 August 2013 Academic Editor: Hilary Critchley Copyright © 2013 Andrea Ciavattini et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Uterine leiomyomas (fibroids...
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...------------------------------------------------- γ-globin analysis by expression profiling through RT-qPCR, quantification through ELISA, and oxidative stress management analysis by FACS from KU812F cells under treatment by δ aminolevulinic acid, succinylacetone, and N-methyl mesoporphyrin Shaan Sarode, Jose Cordero, and Dr. Li Liu experiments in this paper done through instruction in graduate course: Biotechnology laboratory in the natural sciences and mathematics department at the university of texas at dallas, RICHARDSON, TX 75080 march 2016 [Company name] | [Company address] ------------------------------------------------- γ-globin analysis by expression profiling through RT-qPCR, quantification through ELISA, and oxidative stress management analysis by FACS from KU812F cells under treatment by δ aminolevulinic acid, succinylacetone, and N-methyl mesoporphyrin Shaan Sarode, Jose Cordero, and Dr. Li Liu ABSTRACT Hemoglobinopathies refer to a group of blood related disorders that encompass important disease such as thalassemia and sickle cell disease. Because many of these disease are hereditary more aggressive genetic therapies are showing promise as possible avenues of treatment. One such method is to re-express fetal hemoglobin (HbF) in hopes that it will take over the role as main functional hemoglobin. In this paper we aim to build upon previously utilized proteomic approaches to study γ-globin by using techniques to test for direct gene expression of whole hemoglobin rather than fragmented...
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...operator preventing the promoter from attracting RNA polymerase and preventing transcription. B) Lactose bind to RNA polymerase, which then binds to the promoter and transcribes the needed genes. C) Lactose binds to the repressor, which does not bind to the operator, and RNA polymerase transcribes the needed genes. D) Lactose binds to the operon, which attracts RNA polymerase, then transcription of the needed genes occurs. E) Lactose binds to the CAP site to prevent the CAP protein from binding Answer: C 2. Which of the following is likely to be expressed? A) euchromatin B) heterochromatin C) DNA without methyl groups D) DNA with many methyl groups E) euchromatin and DNA without methyl groups is more likely to be expressed Answer: E 3. Which of the following is a method of posttranscriptional control? A) transcription factors B) the life span of a mRNA molecule C) differential processing of mRNA D) how fast the mRNA leaves the nucleus E) both differential processing and how fast mRNA leaves the nucleus are involved in posttranscriptional control. Answer: E 4. Which gene in an operon is incorrectly matched with its function? A) promoter--where RNA polymerase first binds to DNA B) regulator--binds to the repressor protein C) structural--makes...
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...A2 Biology Unit 5 page 1 AQA A2 Biology Unit 5 Contents Specification Human Nervous system Nerve Cells The Nerve Impulse Synapses Receptors Muscle Animal Responses Control of Heart Rate The Hormone System Homeostasis Temperature Homeostasis Blood Glucose Homeostasis Control of Mammalian Oestrus Plant Responses The Genetic Code Protein Synthesis Gene Mutations Stem Cells Control of Gene Expression Biotechnology DNA sequencing Southern Blot In vivo cloning Genetically Modified Organisms Gene Therapy Genetic Screening and Counselling 2 4 6 0 14 17 24 28 30 33 34 38 42 44 48 50 54 57 63 66 71 76 80 85 89 92 Molecular Genetics These notes may be used freely by A level biology students and teachers, and they may be copied and edited. Please do not use these materials for commercial purposes. I would be interested to hear of any comments and corrections. Neil C Millar (nmillar@ntlworld.co.uk) Head of Biology, Heckmondwike Grammar School High Street, Heckmondwike, WF16 0AH Jan 2010 HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 8/09 A2 Biology Unit 5 page 2 Biology Unit 5 Specification Control Systems Organisms increase their chance of survival by responding to changes in their environment. The Nerve Impulse The structure of a myelinated motor neurone. The establishment of a resting potential in terms of differential membrane permeability, electrochemical gradients and the movement of sodium and potassium ions. Changes in membrane permeability lead to depolarisation and the...
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...without streptomycin. The colonies that do not grow on the plate without streptomycin cannot live without streptomycin. 13.40 The original polypeptide strain and the double mutant differ in two amino acids. The Lys-Gly amino acids in the original polypeptide become Glu-Arg in the double mutant. The Lys-Gly amino acid sequence is: AAA-GGG By adding a G before the first A in the initial AAA sequence, and by deleting the final G, we get: GAA-AGG The resulting sequence codes for Lys-Arg. The entire nucleotide sequence in the double mutant is: 5’ – AUG CCC UUU GGG GAA AGG UUU CCC UAA—3’ 14.8 There are two genes. Gene 1: mutants 1,2,3,4,5,6,8 Gene 2: mutants 7 14.14 A cis-trans test can be performed to determine whether the two varieties are the results of mutations on the same gene, or on different genes. First, it is necessary to ensure that each white variety is true-breeding. Next, we need to perform a cis test on each white variety by crossing individuals from each white strain with individuals from the wild-type strain. The progeny should be wild-type. Wild-type progeny indicate that the mutations that cause the white varieties are recessive. If the cis test produces wild-type offspring, we can proceed to the trans test. In the trans test, we cross true-breeding individuals...
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...unpleasant side effects. The SIP-30 gene is a candidate gene for involvement in neuropathic pain. When neuropathic pain is present, SIP-30 levels rise indicating some cause and effect relationship. Transposons are mobile genetic elements that move around within a genome and integrate randomly, in a mechanism similar to some viruses. The PiggyBac transposon, derived from the cabbage looper moth Trichoplusa ni, is a particularly useful transposon, with many features that make it an ideal vector for gene therapy research. Plasmid vectors will be constructed, one carrying the SIP-30 gene, and another carrying antisense SIP-30 in the PiggyBac vector, in order to deliver the genes into mouse nerve cells. This is hypothesized to increase and decrease the expression of neuropathic pain respectively. The gene will be delivered through intrathecal injections into the mouse intrathecal fluid of the spinal cord. If successful, this research can have serious implications for future human gene therapy to treat neurological disorders, using the PiggyBac vector as the gene delivery system. Introduction: Features of the PiggyBac Transposon: Transposons are mobile genetic elements that move around within a genome and integrate randomly, in a mechanism similar to some viruses. The PiggyBac transposon, derived from the cabbage looper moth Trichoplusa ni, is a particularly useful transposon, with many features that make it an ideal vector for gene therapy research. The PiggyBac transposon...
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... Fructose and galactose all have the same six carbon atoms, twelve hydrogen atoms, and six oxygen atoms, just as glucose, but they are named differently because they are alternate forms of the monosaccharide, glucose . 6. Nucleic acids are created with phosphodiester bonds. 7. Nitrogen and carbon are common to all organic molecules. 8. Fuels such as gasoline are nonpolar and high in energy because they are largely composed of hydrocarbons. 9. Lipids serve as important energy stores and is a major component of plasma membranes. 10. The functional group -COOH has acidic properties and would release hydrogen ions in an aqueous (water) solution. 11. The peptidoglycan of the bacterial cell wall contains a carbohydrate matrix linked together by short chains of amino acids. 12. Nuclear pores apparently permit the passage of only proteins inward and outward, but RNA only outward. 13. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are the other organelles besides the nucleus that contain DNA. 14. The Golgi apparatus and ER are organelles that participate in the synthesis and modification of enzymes targeted to the plasma membrane. 15. The principles of cell theory or cell doctrine include the following: All living organisms are composed of one or more cells, cells are the smallest unit of living organisms, and new cells form from pre-existing cells by cell division. 16. The most accurate...
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...Transcription This week we will look at Chapter 21 and TRANSCRIPTION, which is the first part of gene expression. We will leave the more complex aspects of transcription to the courses of Genetics and Microbiology. However, for Cell Biology we will touch upon those concepts that complement the cellular aspects of transcription. In particular, we will look at the genetic code, called the CODON, frameshift mutations, the structure of theTRANSCRIPTIONAL UNIT, and the phases of transcription. I will point out those aspects of transcription that I feel are important to this course. The study guide will also help you to focus on those parts of transcription that the examination will cover. CHAPTER 19 1. What important event (related to DNA) occurs in G1 before the cell enters the S phase? 2. What important event (related to DNA) occurs in G2 before the cell enters mitosis? 3. Why are G1 and G2 called gap phases? What happens during S phase? 4. Can mitosis occur without cytokinesis? (hint, Drosophila) 5. During which phase of mitosis do sister chromatids separate? 6. How do the experiments of Meselson and Stahl verify the semiconservative model of DNA replication? 7. What is the name of the locus (location) from which DNA replication begins? Does DNA replication occur uni- or bi-directionally? 8. Name the two major components of the primosome. 9. What are the functions of DNA polymerase III, the primosome, primase, DNA polymerase I, and DNA ligase? 10. What structure...
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