...The Earth system consists of the geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, and can be regarded as a large-scale example of Le Chatelier's Principle where systemic perturbations are mitigated through complex feedbacks to eventually establish an amended equilibrium. The geosphere impacts the other spheres as it regulates uniformitarianism through volcanism, while also providing the physical interface between the lithosphere and organic subaerial constituents of the earth system in the form of regolith; thereby facilitating biotic subsistence and terrestrial feedback. Considering spatiotemporal impacts of volcanism are inherently interconnected concerning volcanism, a temporal scale will be implemented to define such feedbacks between parameters of the earth system, as the Gaia Hypothesis postulates. It is evident that short-term impacts (<1 year) deriving from major eruptions are interrelated and therefore impact the Earth systems’ spheres in a variety of complex ways. For instance, ejecta that fails to penetrate the stratosphere exacerbates tropospheric meteorological activity in the succeeding weeks as tephra acts as a nuclei for water vapour, which is subsequently precipitated out (10). This rain encompasses particulate sulphide matter that impacts the biosphere (via regolith) by acidifying soil pH levels, that in turn kills enzymes and insects while intensifying leaching of essential nutrients (Mg, Ca) through clay degradation (12). Phreatic hydromagmatic eruptions...
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...are mountains made of flood basalt. Flood basalt is made by floods of lava that cool down, resulting in massive plains of igneous rock. These lava flows are caused by what is known as a fissure eruption. Fissure eruptions are rare phenomenon where a fissure in the ground breaches a magma chamber, allowing lava to flow to the surface. The effects of volcanoes on the environment are well known. Not only does the lava cause massive amounts of direct damage, but the ash and sulfurous gases released can cause problems over very wide areas through acid rain or tampering with the ocean’s delicate chemical balance. This area of volcanism and lava plains covered most of India, a subcontinent. The only problem when discussing whether this particular series of eruptions was linked to the extinction of the dinosaurs is finding out when the event took place. The Deccan volcanism took place over hundreds of thousands of years. Radiometric dating has put the Deccan flood basalts at around the right age, but with uncertainty due to the inaccuracy of up to a half million years. This method of dating was corroborated with the use of index fossils to further specify the date. Index fossils are fossils of widespread animals that have a known age. When these fossils...
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...extinction at the end of the Cretaceous period. You should aim to outline the main theories, the claims they make, briefly explain any supporting evidence, and compare and contrast the rival theories. Reasons for the Cretaceous mass extinction have been hotly debated for more than 200 years, since the founding days of geology. Cretaceous mass extinction is referred to the mass extinction that happened in the period of Cretaceous (just after Jurassic), more than 100 million years ago. Many creatures, especially dinosaurs, disappeared in the end of Cretaceous. K-T layer which marks the boundary between the Cretaceous and the Tertiary becomes the key point for the solutions. Till now, four main theories which are gradualism, supernova, volcanism and cosmic impact, have been put forward to solve the scientific problem. And, the last three models belong to catastrophism in favor of sudden extinctions, opposite to gradualism. However, this essay will attempt to argue that cosmic impact should be the most reasonable explanation due to evidence that have been found up to now. In order to demonstrate it, this essay will analyze these different theories separately paragraph by paragraph, along with corresponding findings. In addition, it will compare rival theories. In the ‘gradualistic’ view (theory of gradualism), the Earth was a slowly evolving word and the turnover of living species had to be slow. According to Frankel C. (1999) an ammonite specialist reported in the mid1980s...
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...Yet, “Hotspots”—regions with particularly high rates of volcanism—are not necessarily associated with plate boundaries. Hawaii, the premier example, is thousands of kilometers from the nearest plate boundary yet exudes lava at a higher rate per unit area than at any other place on Earth. G. Foulger and J. Natland 2003, discuss the evidence, or lack there of, of the deep plume model through seismic analysis, especially at Yellowstone. The fact that hotspots are not fixed, “Hawaii has not remained stationary; it changed direction radically at the time of the bend in the Hawaiian-Emperor chain ~50 million years ago, when the Pacific plate did not change direction” (p.921). And that analysis of the petrology does not indicate temperatures required from mantle from a deep plume. Richard Monastersky states...
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...Yellowstone considered America’s first national park was its important geologic features. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (which extends in 34,375 square miles), three main processes correlate with each other to give the basis of the park: volcanism, hydrothermal, and earthquakes. They work together to give the park its unique, yet intricate structure that defines it as the one and only Yellowstone National Park. What exactly is Yellowstone? On account of the three immense volcanic eruptions that happened in the past million years and the fact that a hotspot is located on the upper mantle above Yellowstone, it is considered a super volcano. The recent explosion happened 640,000 years ago which created a large volcanic depression in the magma reservoir called a caldera. According to Erickson, “the volcanic eruption that created the huge Yellowstone caldera, which is about 45 miles long and about 25 miles wide, are counted among the greatest catastrophes of nature” (Erickson 1993). Yellowstone is mainly known for its greatest concentrations of hydrothermal attributes that includes geysers, steam vents, hot springs, and mud pots. However, geysers make up most of what Yellowstone is all about. They would not have existed if volcanism did not play a role in Yellowstone. The formation of geysers are due to rainfall that seeped down into the cracks, which were later heated up by magma and rise to the top from plumbing. As the water pressure emits to the surface, the temperature...
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...The structure of the earth The earth has three major parts-the land part or lithosphere, the water part or hydrosphere and the air part or atmostpere. The lithosphere is the surface on which you live . It is also the earth solid sphere consisting mainly of massive rocks. The massive rocks form large land masses called continent and small island groups . Different land form such as mountains,hills,valleys,plateaus and plains make up the lithosphere. The hydrosphere include all water forms such as oceans,seas,rivers,lakes,and groundwater found beneath the earth. Geologists or scientists who specialize on the history and composition of earth study carefully these two major parts of the earth. They study the different layers of the earth and what each layer is made of. You see only the surface of the earth – the oceans, seas, rivers, rocks, and soil. They cover the earth just like the thick peeling of the pomelo or orange fruit. When you cut open the pomelo, you see layers of pulp inside it. If the earth were cut open, you will see that it is made of three layers. They are the crust, matle and the core. The topmost layer of the earth is the crust which is made of solid rock. It is thicker under the continents; approximately between 11 to 35 kilometres. But under the oceans, it can be 5 to 12 kilometres thick only. At the lower boundary...
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...Vic Camp Natural Disasters Study Guide — Extinctions, Impacts, and Volcano science What are tektites? * Natural glass rocks formed by impact of small meteorites on Earth’s surfaceWhat is Iridium? * Rare element in Earth’s crust, but high concentrations of some meteoritesWhat is shocked quartz? * Could only be produced with a strong impact on Earth; found commonly in relation to known meteorite impact sitesIn what way are tektites, Iridium, and shocked quartz related to the K/T extinction event? * In what way are the Deccan and Siberian flood basalt provinces related to mass extinction events? * Which of these is related to the Permian extinction (the greatest mass extinction event of all time)? * Siberian Flood basalt: Permian extinction (95% died). . . which is related to the K/T extinction? * Deccan Flood basalt: K.T. extinction (70% died)What is the anti-podal hypothesis? * The idea that pairs of opposite hot spots may result from the impact of a large meteorWhat geologic time unit (Eon, Era, Period, Epoch) represents the greatest expanse of geologic time? * Eon (An indefinitely long period of time)What is the Era of Ancient Life called? * Paleozoic Era (Age of invertebrates) - 543 m.y.a. . . . the Era of Middle Life? * Mesozoic Era (Age of dinosaurs) - 251 m.y.a.. . . the Era of Recent Life? * Cenozoic Era (Age of mammals) - 65 m.y.a.. . . the age of the Dinosaurs? * Era of Middle Life. . . the age of Mammals? * Era of Recent LifeKnow...
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...19/11/2014 19/11/2014 Julian Swinkels 4119355 | j.r.a.swinkels@students.uu.nl ------------------------------------------------- Mare Nostrum A report looking into the geodynamics(1), THE PALEOENVIRONMENT(2) and volcanism & earthquakes(3) of the (eastern) mediterranean area Julian Swinkels 4119355 | j.r.a.swinkels@students.uu.nl ------------------------------------------------- Mare Nostrum A report looking into the geodynamics(1), THE PALEOENVIRONMENT(2) and volcanism & earthquakes(3) of the (eastern) mediterranean area Table of content Introduction 1 Geodynamics 2 Volcanism and Earthquakes 4 Paleoenvironment 6 References: 8 Introduction The Mediterranean Sea has been one of the most profound areas for geologists to study at. Amongst each other they also refer to the sea as ‘Mare Nostrum’ which is Latin for ‘our sea’. It is an area where many different types of tectonic plates come together, moving in different directions. It also has the perfect latitude to make it a sensitive area regarding astronomically induced oscillations. In the past it has been a fascinating area for geological research and further analysis of the area would contribute greatly of many geological process in an accurate time-frame. This report will first explain the geodynamics of the area focussing on the subduction processes in the eastern Mediterranean and how extension is possible in an overall compressive state. Secondly the volcanic activity and earthquake...
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...What killed the dinosaurs Introduction: It is one of the greatest puzzles in paleontology. For more than 150 million years, dinosaurs rule the Earth. They were so successful than other animals groups, mammals included, had little change of taking over. Then, 65 million years ago, the dinosaurs disappeared from the world altogether. Did they meet a quick and catastrophic end, or did they fade away gradually? What happened 65 million years ago? In the search for answers to what killed the dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous Period in the Mesozoic Era, scientists have looked beyond fossils. Geological evidence also holds clues and has led to many hypotheses, working explanations, of how dinosaurs may have become extinct. The extinction mystery is far from a simple “whodunit.” The same piece of evidence is sometimes subject to multiple interpretations. And, as yet, there is no obvious answer, no piece of evidence that strongly supports only one hypothesis while showing that all others are incorrect. So what do we know about dinosaur extinction, and how do we know it. Evidence: Scientific evidence and observations are the building blocks of hypotheses. At first the same evidence and observations may support different hypotheses. As more evidence becomes available, some hypotheses are proven, others are disproved, and new ones are formed. Hypotheses: A dinosaur extinction hypothesis is a testable statement describing...
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...Written Assignment #3 The Hood is Real Damian McElroy Word Count: 1525 Due: Nov 18, 2014 Introduction The High Cascade volcanoes are comprised with many volcanoes formed by basaltic eruptions many years ago. More specifically this research report will be designated to the Mt. Hood region seen in figure (1). Research from articles will be provided with references of their origins and give a clear description of the “Hood”, as well as any dangers it may present to populations near by if it were to become unstable. The research comprised within this report is specific and done so with the use of Google Earth images and articles designated to the specific Mt. Hood area; with this research, a hazard assessment and a reliable research station location will be clearly justified and outlined respectively. Description Mt. Hood is a stratovolcano located 45° 21'58.83"N, 121° 41' 43.51"W, has a diameter of 8.83km-10km (This will vary depending on where the diameter is measured from) and a maximum height of 3426m. The elevation profile can be seen in Figure (2), which distinctively justifies the reason for Mt. Hood being classified as a stratovolcano, due to the very steep slope and maximum height of the mountain. Mount Hood, Oregon's highest peak forms a prominent backdrop to the state's largest city, Portland (Smithsonian Institution, 2013). The glacially eroded volcano has been subject to four major eruptive periods during the past 15,000 years (Smithsonian Institution, 2013)...
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...1) Describe the bathymetry of the ocean seafloor and how the features relate to plate tectonics. The bathymetry of the ocean floor is the shape of the ocean floor. On the ocean floor there are also anomalies, gravity and magnetism in different areas of the ocean. “We know these things because it has been mapped out using a process called sonar, Sound Navigation and Ranging. This is done by creating sound waves from a ship at the surface that bounce down off of the seafloor and then come back up. There have actually been a variety of techniques. One of the most important has been side scan sonar that is actually able to map to fine details of the shapes of the ocean seafloor.” (Wysession, teachingcompany.12.forumer.com; 2008) “Ocean bathymetry, to the people involved with early mapping, was a total surprise for a wide variety of reasons.” (Wysession, teachingcompany.12.forumer.com; 2008) “When you look at a lake you know that the deepest parts of that lake will be out away from the shore, perhaps on the very middle. The areas around the back are usually the shallowest. This is not the case in the ocean. In the ocean, the deepest places are the ocean trenches which are found at the edges of continents. It turned out that in the middle of the ocean there are mid-ocean ridges that formed this long continuous chains of mountains that are all connected. The mid-Atlantic ridge connects to the east Pacific rise, and the Indian ridge, and in all three principle oceans these represent...
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...University of Phoenix Material United States and China Comparison Using credible Internet sources, including the CIA World Factbook, complete the following chart on the United States and China. You may expand the chart as necessary. Then answer the mini-essays at the end in 150- to 200- words each. | |United States |China | |Population |roughly 312.8 million people |1.3 billion people | |Population Density |2010 is 87.4 people per square mile |143.48 in 2010 | |Median Age |total: 36.9 years |Median age: total: 35.5 years | | |male: 35.6 years |male: 34.9 years | | |Female: 38.2 years (2011 est.) |female: 36.2 years (2011 est.) | | | | | |Gross Domestic Product (GDP) |$14.7 Trillion (2010) |$5.74 Trillion | |Actual GDP |$14.58 Trillion | ...
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...of paleontologists. Both theories have their strengths and weaknesses. The unscientific behavior of those involved in the meteorite paradigm change will be briefly explored. Evidence that the dinosaurs died in a cataclysm of global proportions will be presented, such as the huge water-laid dinosaur graveyards found over the earth. Occasional nonspecific bone-beds and the rarity of fossils of very young dinosaurs suggest a catastrophic death and burial. The billions of dinosaur tracks recently discovered provide testimony to unusual, stressful conditions. Nests, eggs, and babies are a challenge to a Flood model, but there are enough unknowns associated with the data that solid conclusions are difficult to draw. The part that impacts and volcanism play in a Flood paradigm will be briefly discussed. The question of whether the K/T boundary and the extinction of the dinosaurs should be considered a synchronous event within the Flood will be considered. Introduction Dinosaurs bring wonder to children and adults alike. That such great beasts once roamed the earth is hard to imagine. Even harder to imagine is that some dinosaurs such as Tyrannosaurus rex were probably giant killing machines (after the fall, anyway). Of all the many questions related to dinosaurs, their disappearance from the earth is the most mysterious of all. (Their demise, of course, assumes that no dinosaurs are alive today, as some people believe, but which is beyond the scope...
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...hot ash flows, mudslides, avalanches, falling ash and floods. These eruptions can also trigger tsunamis, flash floods, earthquakes, mudflows and rock falls. Examples of volcanic mountains are Mount St. Helens, Mount Fuji, and Pinatubo. (Kusky, 2010). The earth’s crust is made up of huge slabs known as plates. Plates fit together like a jigsaw puzzle and float on the mantle. They are in constant motion, either towards each other or away from each other. Plate tectonics is considered to be the main theory currently used by most Earth Scientists to describe motion within the outer-most layer of the sold Earth, which is also known as the lithosphere. It is this movement that induces friction that causes earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Volcanism is associated with two of the plate boundary types, divergent and convergent margins. Volcanoes are formed when two tectonic plates meet; the heavier plate slides underneath the light plate and melts down to become magma. This mixes with trapped gases and steam in the magma chamber (Gates, 2009). Pressure from surrounding rocks forces the magma to the surface through weak points, such as fractures and when it reaches the crust an explosion occurs with regard to the amount of pressure available and the viscosity of magma creating a subduction volcano. Volcanoes can additionally be formed when two tectonic plates move away from each other. The impact of the divergence of these plates leads to the melting of rocks in the mantle that...
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...GEO-151 1. What are the relationships among Earth's mantle, crust, asthenosphere, and lithosphere? The Earth’s mantle sits on top of the Core. As the mantle stretches up, it is cooled until the point where the crust is formed and sits on top of the upper most part of the mantle. Therefore, the relationship between the crust and the mantle is, the crust encompasses the outside layer of the planet, including the ocean floor, that floats on top of the mantle, which as stated, stretched down to the outer core. The crust is the thinnest under the oceans, as little as merely 5 km thick and can reach a thickness of around 65km in a continental mountain range. The mantle begins where the crust leaves off and extends downward to a depth of around 2900 km deep, where the deeper you go, the hotter it gets. The lithosphere is what makes up the tectonic plates. It consists of the crust and that, relatively, cooler part of the upper mantle and extends downward to a depth of around 80 km. The lithosphere is broken apart in to the plates and float around the planet on the more liquid part of the mantle. This movement is what causes Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. This more fluid part of the mantle is known as the asthenosphere. The asthenosphere flexes and deforms under the pressure and stresses caused by the core of the planet. This flexing and deforming is what causes the lithosphere to move as it floats on top. This movement the asthenosphere causes is known...
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