...To discuss this view there is a need to understand what a hazard is and what are the volcanic hazards. A hazard is something that causes danger or risk. In the case of volcanic activity it is an event which can cause risks to human life or the surrounding environment. There are specific hazards which occur with volcanic eruptions such as pyroclastic flows, lava flows and the gas emissions from the volcano however there are also secondary hazards that can occur such as lahars, landslides and tsunamis. These are all natural however, the impacts can be worsened by human activity. The impact on humans depends on the amount of human activity surrounding the volcano and the human activity which occurs within the greatest risk area. Around the world, volcanic events can vary in both size and frequency this can be down to the type of plate boundary that the volcanoes lie on but also the type of lava that is known to that volcano. It can be argued that the volcanic hazards depend on the physical factors rather than human factors. For example the eruption that occurred in Iceland in 2010. There were 2 phases which had distinct physical differences and this then affected human activity in a number of different ways. Eyjafjallajökull’s first eruption occurred on the 20th March 2010 and it lasted 6 weeks. It didn't gain much interest from world wide media due to the fact there wasn't any explosive events which affected other parts of the world. This was down to the fact the lava that came...
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...Volcano Hazards Management 1. Prediction * Long term * Short term LONG TERM PREDICTION * Using recurrence intervals to estimate the next volcanic eruption based on past occurrences and trends. This recurrence interval method is generally not effective for a number of reasons: a) for certain volcanoes, there has been a lack of information of past occurrences, such as the type and frequency of eruptions, to effectively predict the overall behavior of the volcano and b) it is impossible to determine exactly what time frame the volcano may erupt. Example: The US Geological Society also estimated that Mt St Helens may experience another eruption in the next 20-30 years, but such a large time frame is useless in giving governments any accurate information for the preparation of the eruption or mitigation. The 1985 Nevado del Ruiz volcanic eruption was predicted in 1979, quite accurately, however, the damage to the country was devastating as the government did not take the appropriate mitigation measures. 25 000 people and 15 000 animals were killed. 4 500 people were injured, 8 000 people homeless. Some government officials dismissed the report as too alarming and did not want to evacuate people till they were assured of the necessity. A group of scientists visited the crater, saw nothing to suggest eminent danger and did not recommend and evacuation. No emergency plans were made to evacuate people After the Mt Nevado Del Ruiz eruption in 1985, it was predicted...
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...forces of change. Not only can powerful explosive eruptions drastically alter land and water for tens of kilometres around a volcano, but tiny liquid droplets of sulphuric acid erupted into the stratosphere can change the planet's climate temporarily. Eruptions often force people living near volcanoes to abandon their land and homes. Those living farther away are likely to avoid complete destruction, but their cities and towns, crops, industrial plants, transportation systems, and electrical grids can still be damaged by tephra, ash, lahars, and flooding. Studies of the geologic history of a volcano are generally necessary to make an assessment of the types of hazards posed by the volcano and the frequency at which these types of hazards have occurred in the past. The best way to determine the future behaviour of a volcano is by studying its past behaviour as revealed in the deposits produced by previous eruptions. This is very helpful when trying to predict an eruption for dormant volcanoes as they are most complex volcanoes to foresee an eruption for. Once this information has been collected, geologists can then make forecasts concerning what areas surrounding a volcano would be subject to the various kinds of activity should a future eruption occur. This information is then used, with knowledge about the present aspects of the volcano, to make volcanic hazards maps which can aid other scientists, government, and the public to plan for evacuations, rescue and recovery. This reduces...
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...Option 1 – Tectonic Activity and Hazards What are tectonic hazards and what causes them? 1. Introduction Tectonic hazards have to be distinguished from tectonic events. Hazards tend to refer to those events or items that pose a threat to humans and their lifestyle. Therefore, a tectonic hazard is one which involves tectonic processes being hazardous to humans. In the first part of my essay I will be explaining exactly what is meant by tectonic processes and will be referring to the relatively new concept of Plate Tectonics which, although being presented as a theory in 1912 by Alfred Wegener, was not actually taken as the standard model until the late 1960’s and even then was being criticized by many learned scholars into the 1980’s. I will then explain what the main types of hazards are in tectonics, namely volcanoes (openings in the earth crust from which material from below the earth’s surface can be ejected) and earthquakes (movement in the earth’s crust that causes shaking of the ground above). However, there are many more hazards that can be associated with these two, namely tsunamis and from volcanoes, pyroclastic flows, lahars and volcanic gases. What causes these hazards should be explained in my explanation of plate tectonics. Throughout my assignment, I will be using many examples of tectonic hazards from around the globe, but will be focusing on certain case studies to try and explain exactly what causes tectonic hazards. I will be using the San Andreas Fault...
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...can preparedness and planning mitigate the effects of earthquakes? Whittow in 1980 defines a hazard as a “perceived natural event which has the potential to threaten both life and property, and a disaster is the realisation of this hazard.” Earth hazards can therefore include all natural events including earthquakes, volcanoes, flooding and mass movement. Due to the very nature of these events “mitigating” (measures taken to reduce the impacts of a hazard beforehand) can be more successful for hazards such as volcanoes which are arguably more predicable than earthquakes and flash flooding. Despite the advances over the past few decades there is no “magic bullet” (Dr Charles Connor) in earth hazard prediction, and therefore mitigation – and the success remains very much dependent upon a number of factors including money available, and the number of vulnerable individuals. Firstly, earthquakes, which are caused by sudden movements of the earth’s crust which result in violent shaking, liquefaction, and in extreme cases tsunamis, can to an extent be prepared for and mitigated for, and this is where money is being channelled into. Preparation and planning involves the retrofitting of buildings to create “earthquake-resistant” societies, aseismic design features (including concrete and steel frames to provide stability), as well as planning exclusion zones and evacuation routes in the case of an earthquake. Earthquake prediction is very closely linked to preparedness as if an event...
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...Nevado del Ruiz Case Study The Eruption and its Impacts What happened? On November 13th, 1985, the Nevado del Ruiz volcano erupted triggering destructive lahars, causing 23 000 fatalities, 4500 injured and, following the catastrophe, 8000 became homeless [3]. Signs of seismic activity can be traced to July 1985, where seismographs displayed uncharacteristically seismic activity levels [1]. In September 1985, steam explosions accompanied the seismic activity [1]. Tremors were observed near the volcano’s summit in November [1]. On November 13, 1985, Nevado del Ruiz erupted twice, a few hours apart [1]. The first eruption ejected pyroclastic materials, causing ash to fall in Armero [1]. Several hours after the volcanic discharge, a storm arose, causing an electrical outage for the region [1]. Due to the storm’s noise, Armero’s citizen did not hear the second eruption which discharged pyroclastic flows and melted the ice cap of the volcano [4]. The liquefied ice cap, mixed with the eruption’s debris, created lahars traveling around 50 kilometers per hour [4]. What went wrong? Columbia lacked geologists and necessary equipment needed to track volcanic activity, meaning that their core source of help came from the international community [3]. With the international communities’ funding and the specialists, the country created a volcanic hazards map, which, is a great...
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...Not Everything is Within our Control The afternoon knows what the morning never expected. – Swedish (Swedish, "Nature Sayings and Nature Quotes | Wise Old Sayings") It is an irrevocable fact that we are not in control of everything that happens. We would like to believe that we are and we do everything in our power to get as close to full control as possible, but the truth of the matter is that as the starting quote say’s “ The afternoon always knows what the morning never expected”. There are many things in our lives that are out of our control, like other people’s feelings and unforeseen unmanageable circumstance, for me this inability to always be in control is a difficult concept. You see, I am an ex-professional athlete in a high-risk sport, motocross. In motocross we like to believe that as we train and prepare we gain control of all situations and when things go north this preparation will allow us to control the uncontrollable. The difficult truth to accept is that although preparation diminished unforeseen and uncontrollable circumstances, it doesn’t eliminate them and when something goes wrong. It goes really wrong. I, like many people will never come to accept that we can’t control certain circumstances and will continue to prepare ourselves and to train ourselves in hopes of controlling the uncontrolled. As crazy as this may seem however, it is people like us that develop equipment, strategies, movements and technology to get us closer to control. It is...
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...Indonesia May 29, 2006 By: Yulini Arediningsih Abstract This paper overview the occurrence of Sidoarjo mud flow, known as Lusi Mud Volcano, the world fastest growing mud volcano, triggered by gas drilling exploration. Since May 29, 2006, Lusi mud volcano in Porong sub-district, East Java, Indonesia has been spurting voluminous hot mud and gas, with uncertain knowledge when it will cease. The progressing eruption has been causing major impact on human life, social, economic and environment in this highly populated region. Breached regulations including Indonesian regulations, constitutions, and APPEGGA rules of conduct are outlined. There are five critical concerns related to ethical and professional conduct arising from the occurrence of Lusi mud volcano. The concerns include negligence to best practise procedures, particularly drilling in high pressure zone; conflict of interest between public, government and private sector; violence to human right, public safety; and crisis management related to mitigating the impacts on environment, social, economic especially in compensation process to the victims. 1. Introduction Sidoarjo/Lapindo Mud flow, is geologically identified as a mud volcano (Sawolo, et al 2009). It is generally known as Lusi, a short name of Lumpur Sidoarjo. Lumpur means mud in Indonesian language. Lusi mud volcano is located in Porong sub district, Sidoarjo Regency, East Java Province, Indonesia. It is located about 30 km south of Surabaya, capital...
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...the movies have given most of us the vivid image of red-hot lava spewing out of the top of a towering volcano, they do not share the entire story of volcanoes Magma and Lava * So what exactly is a volcano? Well, it can be defined as a vent in the earth's crust through which lava, rock fragments, hot vapor and gases are ejected. In other words, a volcano is the earth's way of letting off a little steam. * The super-heated particles that eject out of a volcano come from deep below the earth's surface where temperatures can become so hot that rock actually melts. Magma is the term used to describe this hot molten rock from deep within the earth. * A volcano begins to form when magma, which is less dense than the rock it originated from, rises toward the earth's surface. This liquid rock collects in chambers called 'magma chambers,' where pressure builds due to expanding steam and gases associated with the magma. As pressure reaches a peak within these chambers, magma finds its way through a vent or fissure in the earth's surface, resulting in a volcanic eruption and the expulsion of the hot molten rock. * We now have hot molten rock outside of a volcano, and its name changes from magma to lava. So you can think of 'magma' as liquid rock in the 'middle' of the earth and 'lava' as liquid rock that's 'leaving' the earth. Origin of the Name Volcano * When a volcano erupts, it expels lava, gases and rocks with tremendous force. It's no wonder that the Romans...
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...Geography plate tectonics and associated hazard notes Plate tectonics and associated hazards Geomorphology – the study of landforms of the earth’s surface Plate tectonics – a theory explaining the structure of the earth’s crust and many associated phenomena as resulting from the interaction of the rigid lithosphere. Geomorphological hazard – an event causing harm to people or property, caused by Geomorphological processes e.g. plate tectonic movement. Francis Bacon 1620 As far back as 1620, Francis Bacon spotted that the west coast of Africa and the east coast of South America looked as if they would fit together, like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. Between then and 1912 other people identified further similarities between other continental coastlines. Robert Mallet 1870s Robert Mallet was a nineteenth century scientist who managed to measure the speed at which earthquakes spread. Alfred Wegner 1911 While at Marburg, in the autumn of 1911, Wegener was browsing in the university library when he came across a scientific paper that listed fossils of identical plants and animals found on opposite sides of the Atlantic. Intrigued by this information, Wegener began to look for, and find, more cases of similar organisms separated by great oceans. Orthodox science at the time explained such cases by postulating that land bridges, now sunken, had once connected far-flung continents. But Wegener noticed the close fit between the coastlines of Africa and South America. Might the similarities...
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...INPUT 1: RA 10121 Salient Points ONLY Definition of Terms "Disaster" - a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources. Disasters are often described as a result of the combination of: the exposure to a hazard; the conditions of vulnerability that are present; and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce or cope with the potential negative consequences, Disaster impacts may include loss of life, injury, disease and other negative effects on human, physical, mental and social well-being, together with damage to property, destruction of assets, loss of services, Social and economic disruption and environmental degradation. "Disaster Risk Reduction and Management" - the systematic process of using administrative directives, organizations, and operational skills and capacities to implement strategies, policies and improved coping capacities in order to lessen the adverse impacts of hazards and the possibility of disaster. Prospective disaster risk reduction and management refers to risk reduction and management activities that address and seek to avoid the development of new or increased disaster risks, especially if risk reduction policies are not put in place. "Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction and Management" or "CBDRRM" - a process of disaster risk reduction and management...
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...Capacity Assessment A Participatory Action Research Study of the Vulnerabilities and Capacities of the Palestinian Society in Disaster Preparedness August 2000 INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF RED CROSS AND RED CRECSENT SOCIETIES United Nations Children's Fund West Bank & Gaza Vulnerability & Capacity Assessment A Participatory Action Research Study of the Vulnerabilities and Capacities of the Palestinian Society in Disaster Preparedness Palestine Red Crescent Society August 2000 Copyright © Palestine Red Crescent Society 2001 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval sysems without prior permission from The Palestine Red Crescent Society, Al-Bireh, Palestine. For further infromation: Palestine Red Crescent Society Headquarters/ Al-Bireh P.O.Box 3637 Tel: ++972-2-2406515/6/7 Fax: ++972-2-2406518 e-mail: info@PalestineRCS.org Website: www.PalestineRCS.org Thanks to technical support of UNICEF West Bank and Gaza to this study and to the financial contribution of UNICEF- Middle East and North Africa Regional office who made the design and printing of this publication possible. Special thanks to the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies for their technical and financial support to carrying this study. Cover drawing and all drawings are by Palestinian Children...
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...Shake and Erupt: A critical reflection on teaching earthquakes and volcanoes to KS3 Rationale: Perhaps the most dynamic features of the Earth’s awesome power and nature are when Volcanoes and Earthquakes occur. Their workings are at the very core of our planet’s history and their unpredictable activity continues to shake mankind’s understanding of the planet. This topic or scheme of work for my mixed ability year nine class offers a plethora of attributes that both incorporates sound core Geographic knowledge and divers teaching formats that can present a degree of awe and wonder into the minds of young people. Planning and teaching such a topic at a time when the Geography National Curriculum is being reviewed by the new coalition Government, seems to provide somewhat of a blank canvass as to what pedagogical approaches might be the most appropriate to adopt. Whatever the NC will look like, we are led to believe that there will be a re-focus on the ‘core’ knowledge in subjects like Geography. This is not to say a return to didactic teaching where teachers are merely transmitters of information, or indeed to adopt a textbook pedagogy which is reminiscent of the late 1970s and 1980s. The Geography Curriculum Consultation Full Report makes it clear “That a line-by-line, detailed list of geography’s contents is not the best way to draw a positive response from teachers . . . though there is strong support for the national curriculum achieving greater clarity over the core...
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...Burrill November 19, 2012 AA Flow Dynamics, Mauna Loa 1984 by Peter W. Lipman & Norman G. Banks I. Introduction The paper on ‘a’a flow dynamics written by Lipman and Banks is one of the first comprehensive studies regarding detailed observations of a long and complex ‘a’a lava flow. This paper was also one of the first to establish connections between lava flow morphology and changes in lava properties, specifically gas and crystal content. The flow that was studied was generated by the 1984 eruption along the northeast rift zone of Mauna Loa volcano, Hawaii (fig. 1). The major flow reached 27 km from the source vent after four days from the start of the eruption (Lipman and Banks, 1987). A decrease in the eruption rate, related to an increase in microphenocrysts and decrease in gas content of erupted lava, generated lava boats that blocked the flow. Blockages led to lava overflowing channel levees, redirecting the lava supply and leading to a stagnation of the major flow. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the key points from the study of the 1984 eruption, investigate some of the impacts this study has had on subsequent research and give a critical evaluation of the study. II. Major Points of Paper Flow Types Lipman and Banks (1987) observed distinctive types of ‘a’a that developed at certain distances from the vent, with certain changes in slope of the terrain and the way the flow advanced. The four types of ‘a’a are...
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...Northern California Geolo Geology of Northern California Frank DeCourten Department of Earth Science Sierra College Standing more than 10,000 feet (3,000 m) above the surrounding terrain, Mt. Shasta is the largest volcano in northern California and symbolizes the dynamic geologic processes that have shaped a spectacular landscape. 63829_02_insidecover.qxd 11/25/08 12:53 AM Page ii ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS TO ASK Northern California.1 Introduction Ⅲ What are northern California’s physiographic provinces? Ⅲ What is the Farallon subduction zone? al Ⅲ What two types of plate boundaries exist in northern California today? th Ⅲ What are terranes, how do they originate, and why are they important in northern California? Northern California.2 The Sierra Nevada: California’s Geologic alifornia’s Ge Backbone Ⅲ What is the Sierra Nevada batholith? rra batholi Ⅲ What kinds of rocks surround the Sierra Nevada batholith? ra Ⅲ When and how was the modern Sierra Nevada uplifted? e Ⅲ What types of gold deposits occur in the Sierra Nevada? e? Ⅲ What is the Mother Lode? Northern California.3 The Klamath M Mountains t ath an Ne evada Ⅲ In what ways are the Klamath Mountains and the Sierra Nevada similar? ds ro o ath M Ⅲ What kinds of rocks comprise the ophiolites in the Klamath Mountains and what tectonic events do they signify? ineral occu th ntai Ⅲ What mineral resources occur in the Klamath Mountains? Northern California...
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