...Difference Between Causation and Correlation Causation vs Correlation The two terms “causation” and “correlation” are usually interchanged, yet they are not interchangeable. Particular confusion arises in their understanding in the fields of health and scientific studies. EXAMPLE No 1: Every time we see a link between an event or action with another, what comes to mind is that the event or action has caused the other. This is not always so, linking one thing with another does not always prove that the result has been caused by the other. Causation Causation is an action or occurrence that can cause another. The result of an action is always predictable, providing a clear relation between them which can be established with certainty. Causation involves correlation which means that if an action causes another then they are correlated. The causation of these two correlated events or actions can be hard to establish but it is certain. Establishing causality between two correlated things has perplexed those that are involved in the health and pharmaceutical industries. The fact that an event or action causes another must be obvious and should be done with a controlled study between two groups of people. They must be from the same backgrounds and given two different experiences. The results are then compared and a conclusion can then be drawn from the outcome of the study. The process of observation plays a significant role in these studies as the subjects must be observed...
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...Correlation does not imply causation Almost daily we are in (mainly) news media whose owner has a structure similar to some of the following: One study claims that the more A, the more B A study says that those who are to have less B. A study says that since A is, then B is the other way. In principle, all these headlines indicate that basically what it says A is causing B to happen, or what is the same, that B is a consequence of A. Normally, when one reads the news, just realizing that so there is a correlation between A and B (come on, a relationship between these two events ), but in principle, without any indication that either one of them, even in this case, we cause the other B. (Oakes, 2012) The study of the correlation between two variables is one of the issues in question in Statistics. To summarize a bit, the question would be something like the following: - From certain data from each of these variables one estimates if there is any relationship between them. The one most frequently studied is called linear regression (by which we seek if there is no linear relationship between the variables), but there are many more possible types: quadratic, exponential, logarithmic... - With these data a function (which, for example, is a straight linear regression) that determines us exactly what the relationship between these variables is calculated. - The actual correlation between them is studied (ie, how strong is the relationship that we calculated based on the...
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...Correlation and Causation The Link Between Sleep and Weight Correlation is the association between two variables, when there is an increase or decrease in one variable what effect does it has to the other variable (Triola, 2010). In this research the author looks on the relationship between a person who do not sleep or get quality sleep and their body weight. There was a study which highlighted a correlation between lack of sleep and increase in body weight. In the study with the women 40 – 60 years old, it was concluded that after studying their eating and sleeping pattern for 5-7 years women who had trouble falling asleep gained approximately 11 pounds. In the other study with the younger men, they studied their sleeping patterns for two consecutive days one day eight hour sleep and the other day four hour sleep. The researchers reported an increase in calorie intake (approximately 560 more) after sleeping for four days significantly more than the person who slept for eight hours. The two variables we have in this scenario is lack of sleep and increase in body weight, for these two variables to be correlated they must be linked or dependent on each other. Although the writer shows studies to show that when there is lack of sleep there is increase in appetite there can be other variables that determine the results such as location, body mass, individuals’ state of mind and age. According to the text the relationship between these two variables is weak and negative. The study...
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...Introduction One of the problems linked with the assessment of research based on statistical analysis involves the determination of whether a true cause and effect connection between variables exists, or is it just a statistical relationship known as correlation. While there may be correlation between variables, there is not a causal relationship unless the variation in the independent variable or variables actually causes the variation in the dependent variable. Often correlation is misinterpreted as causation, as is the case in the examples presented in this essay. The first example is from a journal article that says watching TV increases a persons risk of heart disease and non-cancer related deaths. The second two examples are related to transportation, one saying that speeding causes car crashes and the other saying population in a traffic analysis zone (TAZ) causes trips produced. Although correlation is necessary it is not sufficient, it is important that a true causal relation exists before making conclusions. Body (Example A) The first study is presented in the journal, Circulation-Journal of the American Heart Association with the title, Television Viewing time and Mortality: The Australian Diabetes, Obesity and Lifestyle Study (AusDiab). The baseline data for the study was gathered between the years of 1999 and 2000. The locations for data collection were chosen based on Census Collector Districts in each of the Australian states and in the Northern Territory...
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...within their job satisfaction. The more satisfied the employees are the better job they will do. The managers can look at this information and create rewards and maybe a salary change if needed to satisfy their employees. Correlational research is basically a way to determine the relation between two different variables. The way that correlational research works is to figure out a prediction about one thing based on another. For example gender and department could form a correlational relationship. The reason why I chose these two is because there may be a certain dominant gender that works in a certain department and by looking at the data you will be able to see if that is true (Lanthier, 2002). One thing that I learned about correlation and causation was that they are not the same and correlation does not show causation. I learned that just because something happens at the same time does not mean that the one thing cause the other to happen all the time (Mason,2011). References Lanthier, E. (March 29, 2002). Correlation. Retrieved from http://www.nvcc.edu/home/elanthier/methods/correlation.htm Mason, G. (2011). What is the difference between causation and correlation? Retrieved from...
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...INTRODUCTION LAW FOUNDATION LAW AND … 1. LOGIC 2. SCIENCE 3. THEORY 4. SOCIAL PROBLEMS LAW FOUNDATION Critical = informed and logical Responsible = social equity Creative = independent and considered Interrelations -- with other disciplines and institutions Historical, philosophical, economic, political and social context == acquaintance with historical development of theory Contemporary social issues: · Terrorism · Refugees · Crime and punishment Historical context John Locke? Karl Marx? LOGIC What is wrong with this statement? In the war on terror, you are either with us or against us Which of the following is sound? All men have hair I have hair Therefore I am a man All men have hair I am a man Therefore I have hair Logic definitions Logic = science that evaluates arguments Argument = group of statements, with premises claimed to support conclusions [also inference] Statement = sentence that is either true or false [also proposition] Premise = statement setting forth reasons or evidence Conclusion = statement that the evidence is claimed to support or imply Arguments and non-arguments Arguments must have a factual claim and an inferential claim. The following are not arguments: · warnings or advice · belief or opinion · loosely associated statements · factual reports · explanations · illustrations · conditional statements Deduction and induction ...
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...describes what has happened than what will happen b) Overconfidence iii. We tend to think we know more than we do c) The Scientific Attitude iv. Curiosity 1. Empirical approach v. Skepticism = persistently asking two questions: What do you mean? How do you know? 2. Scientific attitude: being skeptical but not cynical, open but not gullible vi. Humility = an awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives d) Critical Thinking ii. How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions? e) The Scientific Method vii. A scientific theory explains through an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviour or events. viii. Hypotheses ix. We should be aware that it can bias subjective observations x. Operational functions = a statement of the procedures used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test xi. Replicate – repeat xii. Finally – organizepredictionsrevised theory xiii. We can test our hypotheses and refine our theories using … f) Description xiv. The Case Study 3. The case study examines one individual in depth in hopes of revealing things true of us all. 4. Suggest directions for further study 5. Show us what can happen ...
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...determined by three factors: 1) constant conjunction: we continuously see one event that follows from another event in experience. For example, I see that one ball hits another ball, and that second ball moves, and this has happened many times; 2) contiguity: the two things must be close to each other in space and time; and 3) association between ideas: I have an idea of one ball moving, and the idea of another being hit and moving. So, causality does not belong in the objects seen, but only in the mind. Causality is not a real feature of the world, but only a way we interpret events in the world. In this way, Hume's account of causality points to his broader position that we cannot have any knowledge of the world---or even be in a position to know that we have knowledge. Hume observes that while we may perceive two events that seem to occur in conjunction, there is no way for us to know the nature of their connection. Based on this observation, Hume argues against the very concept of causation, or cause and effect. We often assume that one thing causes another, but it is just as possible that one thing does not cause the other. Hume claims that causation is a habit of association, a belief that is unfounded and meaningless. Still, he notes that when we repeatedly observe one event following another, our assumption that we are witnessing cause and effect seems logical to us. Hume holds that we have an instinctive belief in causality, rooted in our own biological habits, and that we...
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...Sociology assignment 1 1. In Sociology what is the difference between examining social life at the micro-level, macro-level, and global-level? Provide an example to illustrate how the three levels of analysis might apply to the same social phenomenon. In sociology social life is examined at three different levels, micro-level, macro-level, and global-level. The micro-level examines social dynamics of face-to-face interactions between people. The macro-level studies the larger scale dynamics of social interactions that occur within a society. At the global level, social life is examined through the structures and processes that occur beyond state borders or specific societies. It is common that more than one level may be effective when studying...
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...Managerial Economics Sat. 11:00 – 14:00 Demand Estimation and Forecasting Facilitators : Mr. John Michael G. Favila Mr. Jose Miguel G. Catan Learning Objectives * Identify a wide range of Demand Estimation and Forecast Methods. * Understand the nature of Demand Function * Understand that the Demand Estimation and Forecasting is all about minimizing risk. Demand Estimation and Demand Forecasting; distinguished. * Demand Estimation attempts to quantify the link between the level of for a product and the variables which determines it whereas the Demand Forecasting simply attempts to predict the level of sales at some particular future date. 7 stages of Demand Estimation 1. Statement of a Theory or Hypothesis : This usually comes from a mixture of economic Theory and previous empherical studies. 2. Model Specification : This means determining what variables should be included in the demand model and what mathematical form or forms such a relationship should take. 3. Data Collection : Gathering necessary information. a. Cross-sectional data : Provide information on a group opf entities at a given time. b. Time-serie data: Provide information on the entity over time. i. Quantitative: Data that are expressed in nominal in either ordinal or cardinal. ii. Qualitative: Expressed in categories. 4. Estimation of Parameters : This means computing the value of the coefficient of...
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...Running head: CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY Cross-Cultural Psychology Charlene Marasco PSY/450 Sally Fleming March 28, 2011 Cross-cultural psychology Cultural psychology is an interdisciplinary program of research that explores the relationship between individual minds and the complex environments in which they are deployed. The approach focuses on the contribution that content-rich, complex environments – ranging from workplaces to cultural traditions to nation states – make in shaping basic cognitive processes. The comparative approach, or cross-cultural approach, uses experimental methods to compare and contrast groups in their performance on a range of psychological tasks with the objective of demonstrating cultural difference and commonality on some psychological aspect in the lab and field (Cultural Psychology., n.d). Cross-cultural psychology Cross-cultural psychology is a comparative study of cultural effects on human psychology, from different cultural groups, which looks at the psychological diversity and the underlying reasons for such diversity. Meaning how people in groups relate to the environment and the world around them, like feelings, thoughts, how and where they live, and how cultural groups at one point interact with another group. Cultural psychology is contributing significant insights into higher-order...
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...and indirect or casual signals that this data can provide. Direct signals, being the more straightforward of the two, refer to what is directly being measured by a certain piece of data and the direction that it is moving. For example, one of the most talked about direct signals in recent history, and a hot-button issue for presidential elections, has been the unemployment rate, which measures the percent of the labor force that is unemployed at a given point in time during the year. If the unemployment rate were to rise from one month to the next, this would be a direct signal that percentage of unemployed people in the country had grown within that month-long time span. In contrast, indirect signals are derived from the causation or correlation between two or more economic indicators. Put simply, indirect signals are used to conclude the movement of one indicator based on the movement of another. Keeping with the above example, an increase in the unemployment rate is typically a sign of an economic slowdown or recession. If we were to see a large enough increase in the unemployment rate, then we might begin to see a decrease in the amount of household spending, which could push businesses to decrease their inventory or availability of services to help cut costs until employment begins to increase. The degree of this causation or correlation depends, in big part, on the reliability and validity of the data...
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...Freakonomics by Steven D. Levitt and Stephen J. Dubner focuses on our economy and the study of incentives. The two authors discuss comparisons that seem so foreign such as “What do school teachers and sumo wrestlers have in common?” and “How is the Ku Klux Klan like a group of real-estate agents?” Questions like these stir up the novel and essentially unravel the untold stories of life and consumption. Core economic principals are discovered within each story of the book. The title Freakonomics in itself has a humorous connotation with the combination of two words: freak and economics. Freak, by definition, means abnormality or oddity and most people might familiarize economics solely with finance or commerce. However, Levitt and Dubner break this common misconception and reveal how...
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...Question Paper an Answer Booklet - provided by the Faculty an Objective Answer Sheet - provided by the Faculty DO NOT TURN THIS PAGE UNTIL YOU ARE TOLD TO DO SO This examination paper consists of 11 printed pages © Hak Cipta Universiti Teknologi MARA CONFIDENTIAL CONFIDENTIAL 2 HM/JUN 2012/HTM600/605/HTH600 PART A MULTIPLE CHOICE Choose the most appropriate answer for each question. Shade your choice on the Objective Answer Sheet. 1. A scientific explanation that remains tentative until it has been adequately tested is called a (n) a) b) c) d) 2. Theory Law Hypothesis Experiment A Study to determine the degree of relationship between two events is called a) b) c) d) Naturalist observation The correlational method A controlled experiment The survey method 3. A researcher observes the confrontation between two rival neighbourhood gangs from the window of an abandoned building. This method of collecting observations is best described as a) b) c) d) Experimental regression Naturalist observation Controlled experimentation Clinical case study 4. In an experiment to find out if taking ginseng increases IQ scores, the IQ score would be a) b) c) d) The independent...
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...inequality stunted a society’s moral development. • Auguste Comte • Émile Durkheim • Karl Marx • Harriet Martineau Question 2 The ability of individuals and groups to exercise free will and to make social change is referred to as: • Structure • Agency • Free choice • Individualism Question 3 Patterned social arrangements that have an enabling or constraining effect on agency are referred to as: • Structure • Institutions • Free will • Socialization Question 4 Accepted social behaviors and beliefs are referred to as: • Norms • Culture • Social status • Values Question 5 The relationship between agency and structure is _____, as ______. • one-sided, agency influences structure • one-sided, structure enables or constrains agency • reciprocal, they both have an effect on one another • nonexistent, there is no relationship between the two Find the midterm exam answers here just a click away SOC 100 Midterm Exam Part 1 - Assignment Question 6 _____ established the first rules for conducting sociological research and examined the impact of modern society on social solidarity. • Auguste Comte • Émile Durkheim • Karl Marx • Harriet Martineau Question 7 _____ believed that nearly all known societies are characterized by some system of division by economic class, which results in conflict as classes compete for wealth, power, and resources. • Auguste Comte • Émile Durkheim • Karl Marx • Harriet Martineau Question 8 The bonds...
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