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自然辩证法的历史发展和主要内容
自然辩证法是马克思主义中主要由恩格斯的《自然辩证法》这部著作所开创的一个广阔的研究领域,构成马克思主义哲学的一个组成部分。
就自然辩证法这个词的原义来说,它是指客观自然界发展的辩证法;就它的广义来说,就被称为自然辩证法的这个科学部门形成和发展的实际情况来说,它不仅研究自然界本身的辩证法,而且研究人对自然界的认识——自然科学的辩证法。研究认识自然界和改造自然界的一般方法论。由于自然界本身的辩证法是通过自然科学和技术的发展而日益被揭示出来的,所以上述两个方面的研究是密切相联而不可分的。自然辩证法是马克思主义的自然观和自然科学观,体现着马克思主义哲学的世界观、认识论、方法论的统一。 历史来源 马克思主义自然辩证法的产生有其历史的来源。古代东方和西方的自然哲学,同自然科学的萌芽状态相适应,其中的唯物主义思想和辩证法思想具有朴素的、直观的性质。十六世纪以来西方近代实验自然科学建立和发展起来以后,唯物主义哲学和唯物主义自然观相应地有了重大的发展。但是,由于自然科学中首先得到充分发展和广泛应用的是力学,由于直到十八世纪自然科学总的来说还处于分门别类地搜集材料,进行研究而未发展到足以揭示自然界的历史发展和广泛联系的阶段,因而那时的自然知识处于狭隘状况,那时的唯物主义自然观带有机械的(力学的)形而上学的局限性。德国古典哲学特别是黑格尔哲学中有丰富的辩证法思想,这同自然科学的发展也是有联系的。但是,德国古典自然哲学尽管包含许多有见识的和合理的东西,却是以神秘的形式阐发的,在那里关于自然界的辩证法的思想,具有思辩的、唯心主义的性质。这种自然哲学就其形式、体系和方法而言,是同自然科学分离并凌驾于自然科学之上的。 从康德于1755年和拉普拉斯于1796年提出星云学说试图揭示天体演化的历史开始,形而上学的自然观被打开了第一个缺口。十九世纪以来自然科学的一系列发现:维勒的尿素合成(从无机物得到有机物) (1826年),赖尔的地质演变论(1830年),施旺、施莱登的细胞学说(1838年、1839年),迈尔等人的能量守恒和转化定律(1842年),汉堡她的比较自然地理学(1845年),达尔文的生物进化论(1859年),麦克斯韦的电磁理论,门捷列夫的元素周期律(1869年)等等(其中能量转化、细胞学说和进化论被恩格斯称之为三大发现),使自然界的历史发展和普遍联系被日益提示出来,整个自然科学经历着从经验到理论、从分析到统合的发展过程。这一切不断地打击着和冲破了形而上学的自然观。正如恩格斯所说:“在自然科学中,由于它本身的发展,形而上学的观点已经成为不可能的了。” (《自然辩证法·总计划草案》)自然科学为检验辩证法提供了极其丰富的、与日俱增的材料,“并从而证明了,自然界的一切归根到底是辩证地而不是形而上学地发生的”(《反杜林论》。 建立过程 马克思主义自然辩证法就是在这样的自然科学发展的基础上建立起来的。从哲学思想的渊源来说,它正是依据这样的自然科学发展,对德国古典哲学中的唯心主义辩证法进行了唯物主义的改造。恩格斯说:“马克思和我,可以说是从德国唯心主义哲学中拯救了自觉的辩证法并且把它转为唯物主义的自然观和历史观的仅有的人。”( 《反社林论·三版序言》)在马克思主义看来,事情不在于把辩证法的规律从外部注入自然界,而在于从自然界中找出这些规律并从自然界里加以阐发。根植于自然科学之中的马克思主义自然辩证法的建立,意味着凌驾于自然科学之上的、思辨地构造体系的旧自然哲学的终结。 马克思、恩格斯酝酿和形成他们的新哲学世界观,开始于十九世纪四十年代,体现在他们分别和合作撰写的一系列手稿和著作特别是《费尔巴哈论纲》和《德意志意识形态》中。他们关于自然辩证法的思想萌芽,也应该追溯到这一时期。当然,系统地研究、建立和阐明马克思主义的自然辩证法,主要是由恩格斯来进行的,体现在他从1858年开始酝酿(1858年7月14日恩格斯马克思信)、从1873年开始写作(1873年5月30日恩格斯致马克思信)的《自然辩证法》手稿和1872一1878年写的《反杜林论》中。马克思从五十年代开始致力于《资本论》的写作,但是他了解并重视恩格斯关于自然辩证法的研究和写作。他在《资本论》中和在给恩格斯的信(1867年6月22日)中谈到过在历史上也象在自然科学上一样证明了黑格尔发现的量变到质变规律的正确性。他听过并同意《反杜林论》的全部原稿。他还研究过数学特别是微分学的辩证性质,写了《数学手稿》。因此,应该认为,《反杜林论》和《自然辩证法》手稿表达的是恩格斯和马克思的共同思想。 《政治经济学批判大纲》)他还作出了十八世纪“科学和哲学结合的结果就是唯物主义、启蒙时代和法国的政治革命”,“科学和实践结合的结果就是英国的社会革命”(《英国状况》)的著名论断。马克思在研究政治经济学的过程中,详细地研究了技术史,论述了自然科学和技术在现代生产和现代社会中的作用。恩格斯在马克思墓前演说中强调指出:“在马克思看来,科学是一种在历史上起推动作用的、革命的力量。” 恩格斯还说过,他引用现代自然科学来证明辩证法存在于现实之中,是因为唯物主义历史观及其在无产阶级革命斗争中的应用,只有借助于辩证法才有可能(见《<社会主义从空想到科学的发展>德文本第一版序言》)。这段话深刻地表明了自然辩证法作为马克思主义哲学和马克思主义整个革命学说的不可缺少的组成部分的重要意义。 传播和发展 列宁在十九世纪末二十世纪初自然科学新发展的背景下,在捍卫马克思主义哲学的斗争中,写出了《唯物主义和经验批判主义》(1908—1909年)。在这部著作中,他考察了以X射线、电子和元素转化的发现为契机的物理学革命,分析了由它所引起的哲学思想的混乱,认为这种混乱的产生主要就是因为不懂得辩证法;特别是不懂得自然科学认识发展的辩证法;他指出现代物理学正在走“从形而上学的唯物主义提高到辩证唯物主义”这一步,唯物主义辩证法是自然科学的“唯一正确的方法和唯—正确的哲学” (《唯物主义和经验批判主义》)。在《哲学笔记》中,列宁强调辩证法内容的正确性必须由科学史来检验,“要继承黑格尔和马克思的事业,就应当辩证地研究人类思想、科学和技术的历史。”(《黑格尔<逻辑学>一书摘要》)。 在十月革命以后,列宁发表了《论战斗唯物主义的意义》,要求战斗唯物主义同自然科学家结成联盟,用唯物主义的辩证法去研究自然科学革命所提出的种种哲学问题,从而为社会主义国家这方面研究工作的发展提出了—个纲领。 1925年,恩格斯的《自然辩证法》在苏联出版。这部著作的公之于世,大大促进了马克思主义自然辩证法在苏联和在世界的传播,在中国,自然辩证法也是随着恩格斯这部主著作中译本的出版(1929年)而逐渐在接受马克思主义的哲学工作者和自然科学工作者中间得到传播的。中华人民共和国建立以后,进—步在广大哲学工作者和自然科学工作者中间得到广泛的传播。毛泽东也很关心和重视自然辩证法的研究,在这方面讲过一些深刻的意见。例如:他强调自然界无论在微观方面,还是在宏观方面,都是无限的,自然科学的发展也是无限的,自然发展史和自然科学史充分说明了辩证法的这一基本观点;他提出自由是必然的认识和客观世界的改进;他论述了真理发展的辩证法,指出百家争鸣是发展科学的必由之路,等等。他的哲学著作《实践论》和《矛盾论》,在中国科学工作者学习马克思主义认识论和辩证法,开展自然辩证法研究中,起着重要作用。 自然辩证法的发展同自然科学的发展是紧密联系着的。二十世纪以来自然科学的突飞猛进,极大地扩大并加深了人类对自然界的认识,远远超出了十九世纪自然科学的眼界。列宁看到了这一深刻变革的开端。综观二十世纪的自然科学,爱因斯坦的狭义相对论(1905年)和广义相对论(1915年),更新了经典物理学关于物质、运动、空间、时间、质量、能量的概念;从普郎克的量子论、波尔的量子化的原于结构理论(1913年)到薛定锷、海森伯的量子力学(1925年、1926年),揭示了崭新的、不同于宏观物理学规律的微观物理学规律;对基本粒子的相互转化和更深结构层次的研究,对各种相互作用统一的研究,显现了物质的深远的无限性和深刻的统一性;宇宙论的研究把演化概念推到更广的范围和更深的层次(元素和基本粒子的演化);生物学的研究借助于现代物理学和化学,从四十年代开始由细胞水平深入到分子水平,这方面研究的不断发展使人类开始真正揭开生命活动和遗传现象的秘密;从电子计算机的制成(1946年)逐步发展到人工智能的探索,为思维科学的研究开辟了新天地;控制论、信息论、系统论的创立和发展,使自然科学的综合和抽象发展到更高的水平;数学和自然科学方法日益向社会科学渗透;科学的革命引起广泛的、日新月异的技术革命,引起新产业的不断兴起,旧产业的不断改造,引起社会生产力的巨大进步,引起人类物质生活、人们社会关系、人们思想方式的巨大变化;人类作用于自然界的能力的巨大增长,带来了人和自然界的关系的许多尖锐问题(如环境和生态问题等)。
总之,二十世纪自然科学的发展在更加广阔的范围和更加深刻的程度上揭示了自然界的辩证法和自然科学的辩证法,使辩证法的许多基本观点由于无数确凿的自然科学事实而在实际上为自然科学界所广泛接受,不管他们是否在哲学上承认辩证法。面对现代自然科学新发展提出的种种哲学问题,苏联的许多自然科学家和哲学家从马克思主义观点进行广泛的研究和讨论,英国、法国、日本以及其他资本主义国家的一些接受马克思主义的著名自然科学家也进行了有成效的研究和讨论。在中国,《自然辩证法(数学和自然科学中的哲学问题)十二年(1956-1967年)研究规划草案》和《1978—年自然辩证法发展规划纲要草案》,表明了这方面工作的范围和方向。应该指出,在苏联,在中国,这方面工作的发展都走过曲折的道路,主要是发生过把马克思主义哲学简单化、教条化和对自然科学新成果、新思想进行粗暴批判的错误,从而阻碍过自然科学和马克思主义哲学的发展。尽管如此,自然科学和马克思主义哲学的强大生命力战胜了这些错误,促进着两者的健康的相互结合,使自然辩证法成为当代马克思主义哲学的一个十分活跃的研究领域。

主要内容 自然辩证法研究的内容,总的来说,有两大方面、一个是自然观,即对自然界的辩证法的研究;一个是自然科学观,或称自然科学论,即对自然科学的辩证法的研究。 自然观的研究,要求不断地概括和运用当代自然科学的最新成果,来发展和更新人们关于自然界辩证发展的总图景和对自然界的总观点(包括关于自然界的物质观、运动观、时空观、信息观、系统观、规律观,以及自然发展史,自然界各种运动形态的划分、联系、交错和转化等等);来研究辩证法的基本规律和范畴在自然界各种过程中的丰富多样的表现,使人们对辩证法的规律和范畴的理解不断充实和深化,使它们在许多方面进一步清晰化、准确化和精细化,并增添新的内容。从而使辩证的同时是唯物主义的自然观,提高到同自然科学的新发展、新思想相适应的现代水平。 自然界不仅是指独立于人之外的自然界,而且包括经过人改造了的自然界,人按照自然规律创造出来的自然界,即人工的自然界。马克想主义自然观研究自然界的辩证法,当然要包括研究人工自然界的辩证发展。正是在人工自然界的辩证发展中,交汇着科学和技术,交汇着人、自然和社会,展现了丰富的辩证法内容。 自然科学论的研究,又有两个方面。一个是从马克思主义认识论、方法论来研究自然科学认识过程、认识方法和自然科学认识发展规律;一个是从马克思主义社会历史观来研究作为社会现象的自然科学在社会中发展和起作用的规律。 由于自然科学成熟较早,进展较快,研究的对象相对于社会现象来说较为简单,认识的检验较为直接和明确,它的历史和最新发展,为人们研究认识规律,研究诸如:科学认识从感性到理性的深化和从理性的较浅层次到较深层次的深化,科学认识中实验和理论的关系,假设和模型的作用,科学的逻辑结构和语言形式,科学思维的创造性,科学真理的相对性和绝对性,科学理论检验的确定性和不确定性,科学认识的积累、飞跃和革命,新旧科学理论嬗替的规律,科学争论和科学交流对科学认识发展的意义等等问题,提供了最丰富的素材。自然科学在其长时间的历史进程中形成的并在不断发展的科学方法,从认识论和方法论上加以深入的分析、总结和阐述,使之得到更为广泛、自觉和正确的运用,这对于人们在各个领域的认识活动和实践活动的更加科学化,有很大的意义。科学认识论和科学方法论的研究,成为自然辩证法研究中最富于成果和最引入注意的领域。 自然科学发展规律的研究,要求把自然科学作为认识现象和作为社会现象这两个方面结合起来,因为自然科学认识的发展是在一定的社会历史条件下进行,受社会历史条件的决定(推进和限制)又反作用于社会历史的。诸如:自然科学作为知识形态的生产力向物质生产力转化的规律及其发展,科学、技术、生产和科学、经济、社会相互结合和影响的规律及其发展,自然科学和社会精神文明的发展,社会的科学能力的因素及其增长的规律,自然科学在社会中发展的规律和这种规律在不同社会制度下的不同表现,自然科学知识体系的分类和结构,学科的分化和整合的规律,科学发展中的生长点和带头学科形成的规律,等等问题,构成自然科学论研究的多方面内容。 技术同科学联系紧密,又是独立的社会现象。技术论的研究从总体上探讨技术的性质和特点、技术发展的条件和规律以及技术和其它各种社会现象的关系等等,是一个新兴的研究领域。 由于人们越来越要求有意识地组织科学技术的研究和运用,自然科学论和技术论的研究为科学技术政策的制定、科学技术发展的规划、科学技术工作的领导和管理提供理论的基础,其重要性日益显得突出。 自然观和自然科学论的研究,一方面要从自然界和自然科学的总体和综合上来进行,只一方面要从各门自然科学的分体上来进行。分别结合各门自然科学的各种基本理论、各种基本概念和各自的研究方法,分别结合各部门自然科学的思想发展史以及重大的发现史、重大创造史的案例,分别结合各门自然科学技术发展和社会发展的关系,从哲学上进行细致的和专门的研究,构成各门自然科学的哲学问题的广阔领域,展开了自然辩证法研究的丰富多彩的内容。 在自然观和自然科学论方面,各国的许多有重大理论成就的自然科学家,发表过许多有价值的意见和著作。不管他们是否有明确的哲学思想或者接受何种哲学的影响,出于他们的这类观点是从他们的创造性的实践和对自然科学的深切理解中提出的,自然辩证法研究者对这些思想财富都是十分珍视,并努力在马克思主义基础上加以科学的分析和吸取。西方科学哲学和科学社会学的各派学者,他们的哲学观点和具体论点有许多可争议和应批评的地方,但是许多人从哲学、逻辑、语言、社会学等各种角度对自然科学作了细致的、有价值的研究,有些人也明显地受到马克思主义观点的不同程度和不同方面的影响。自然辩证法研究者也很重视对这些成果的了解,并努力在马克思主义基础上加以科学的分析和吸取。马克思主义自然辩证法不是一个封闭体系,而是一个向自然科学的新发展、向自然科学家和其他领域科学家的科学的新思想敞开大门,通过科学的研究、科学的讨论和科学的批评而不断吸取新成果以丰富和发展自己的开放体系。 用自然辩证法这个名称来概括包括上述主要内容的研究领域,在中国是从延安时期起就沿袭下来的习惯。对于自然辩证法是否构成一个单独的科学部门,或构成一个怎样的科学部门,或这个部门应该叫什么名称,在我国学术界也有不同意见。 有一种意见认为,上述的研究内容,可以分别由辩证唯物主义、历史唯物主义、科学学、科学史等科学部门进行研究,不能构成一个单独的科学部门。不同意这种意见的则认为,自然辩证法的研究领域是马克思主义哲学和自然科学相互结合的领域,马克思主义哲学的其他各个部门,都从各自的角度对这个领域的问题进行研究,但这些部门的研究都不限于这个领域,而自然辩证法则专以这个领域为自己的研究对象;自然科学史、科学社会学,也都从各自的角度对这个领域的问题进行研究,但这些部门的研究主要是具体科学的研究,而自然辩证法则主要是对这个领域进行概括的哲学研究。因此,自然辩证法同马克思主义哲学的其他各部门、同科学学和科学史的研究互相交错,而又形成马克思主义哲学的单独的组成部分。 还有一类意见强调自然辩证法这门科学的独立性,或者认为它是哲学之外的一门独立科学,或者认为它是哲学和自然科学之间的一门边缘科学,或者认为它作为哲学的一个独立部门,有自己独特的规律和范畴的体系,并为构成这种体系作了尝试。对这类体系也有不同的意见,或者认为形成的条件还不成熟,或者对其方法本身表示疑问。 在苏联,这个研究领域一般称为自然科学哲学问题研究;但是也有一些哲学家认为,作为哲学科学的自然辩证法,同辩证唯物主义、历史唯物主义、辩证逻辑、伦理学、美学、科学无神论、哲学史一道,构成马克思主义哲学的统一整体;认为这样来看待自然辩证法这个哲学部门,可以避免把自然科学哲学问题弄得支离和零散。 这些争论,反映出自然辩证法同哲学的其它分支和自然科学、技术科学以及其它科学领域的密切联系,反映出自然辩证法是一门在形成中的和向多方面交叉发展的科学部门。 在西方,这一研究领域分别由自然哲学、科学哲学、科学社会学和科学论、技术论等学科进行研究。这是为《中国大百科全书·哲学卷》写的“自然辩证法”条目的原稿

参考文献
[1]《马克思、恩格斯论自然辩证法与自然科学》试编本,科学出版社1975-1978年版。
[2] 《马克思、恩格斯、列宁:自然辩证法文选》,人民出版社1980年版。
[3] 《自然辩证法研究资料选辑》第一辑,1956年自然辩证法研究规划说明书汇编,科学出版社1960年版。[4] 《自然辩证法讲义》(初稿),人民教育出版社1979年版。
[5] 查汝强:自然辩证法,《百科知识》1979年第3期。
[6] 于光远:自然辩证法是一个科学群,《自然辩证法通讯》1980年第1期。
[7] 龚育之:自然辩证法在中国,《自然辩证法通讯》1981年第1期。
*自然辩证法研究Vol.3, NO.3, 1987

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