4
MANAGING YOUR CASH AND SAVINGS
Cash Management Strategies
Starting Point
Go to www.wiley.com/college/bajtelsmit to assess your knowledge of cash and savings management. Determine where you need to concentrate your effort.

What You’ll Learn in This Chapter
▲ Cash management ▲ Financial institutions ▲ Financial products and services

After Studying This Chapter, You’ll Be Able To
▲ Assess your need for cash management products and services ▲ Evaluate the differences among providers of cash management products and services ▲ Choose cash management products and services that are important to your financial plan ▲ Compare cash management account options based on liquidity, safety, costs, and after-tax annual percentage yield ▲ Select appropriate tools for dealing with cash management errors

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INTRODUCTION
Everyone manages cash. Your very first exposure to personal financial management was probably related to cash management. Perhaps you received a small allowance when you were a child and had to decide how to spend or save the money. Access to cash to meet transaction needs and emergencies is essential to your financial plan. A central part of your cash management strategies involves choosing cash management services, such as checking and savings accounts. This chapter helps you evaluate companies and the cash management services they offer. After you select the options that best meet your needs, you can implement your plan.

4.1 Objectives of Cash Management
Many people are guilty of occasionally, or not so occasionally, neglecting to balance their checkbooks or making bill payments after they are due. Keeping track of your cash and paying your bills are both important tasks associated with cash management. Cash management includes all your decisions related to cash payments and short-term liquid investments. As discussed in Section 2.2, liquid investments are those that can easily be converted to cash without loss of value, such as the money in a checking or savings account. Although you can leave money in these accounts for longer periods, they are not generally the best choice for long-term savings, so we can also think of cash management as decisions related to investments of one year or less. When you hold cash, whether it’s in your pocket or in a bank checking or savings account, you incur certain costs. For one, you give up the opportunity to invest those dollars to earn a higher rate of return. Most people hold some of their money in a checking account. In some cases, this account might pay a small amount of interest, but in most cases, it does not. In fact, you may even pay for the privilege of holding money in certain types of accounts. The lost interest is an important consideration. For example, if you carry an average balance of $1,000 in your checking account for a year, and you could instead have invested it to earn 10 percent interest, you’ve given up about $100 in interest (10 percent of $1,000). An additional cost of holding cash is psychological: If you have money sitting in your checking account, you can spend it very easily. It would be a shame if all your hard work in developing your budget went to waste because you couldn’t resist the temptation of writing a check for an expensive item you hadn’t planned to buy. In contrast, if you keep your cash in an account that’s not as easily accessible, such as a savings account, you’ll be more likely to stick to your plan. Cash accounts pay less interest and increase the risk of overspending. So why are we willing to incur these costs? There are three general reasons for holding cash:
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▲ Managing transactions ▲ Preparing for cash emergencies ▲ Making temporary investments All these purposes are related to managing liquidity. Money held in less liquid investments, such as bonds, stocks, and real estate, provides a better investment return than money held in checking and saving accounts, but it’s also more difficult to access on short notice.
4.1.1 Managing Transactions

Everyone has bills. To pay your bills easily, you need to have sufficient cash in a transaction account, commonly called a checking account, which is an account that allows you to regularly make deposits, write checks, withdraw funds, or make electronic payments in a timely fashion and at minimal cost. Many people find it convenient to deposit their paychecks into a checking account and then to pay their bills from that account. There’s a cost to using this banking service, in the form of lost interest earnings. So why not have your paycheck deposited in a savings account instead? Although it’s usually fairly easy to make transfers between accounts, the time and effort required to make multiple transfers each month as bills come due would probably outweigh the minimal interest that could be earned. Because the money is coming in and then promptly going out, the actual amount of time that it will earn interest is likely to be relatively short, and the interest you earn may not be enough to justify the time spent shifting money between accounts. However, if your paycheck is normally greater than the total monthly payments you make from the account, you should carefully estimate your needs and have the extra amount automatically transferred to an interest-earning account each month.
4.1.2 Preparing for Cash Emergencies

Life is full of unpredictable events. Maybe the car needs a new $2,000 transmission. Or your son breaks his arm playing football, and you have to pay $400 in doctors’ bills. More serious emergencies might involve the loss of a job or temporary disability. To meet your emergency cash needs, you should manage your financial assets so that you can access cash when needed. For most households, this should include a cash reserve—an accumulation of liquid assets that you can turn to in an emergency. In the past, a family might have had a few hundred dollars hidden in the bottom of a cookie jar or under a mattress. Today, in addition to traditional checking and savings accounts, you can arrange for credit cards and home equity lines of credit that can be accessed in an emergency but that otherwise incur no interest. Section 5.6 explains that you should avoid using credit cards as much as possible because of their high interest costs. However, they can be a source
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of short-term liquidity as long as you anticipate repaying the borrowed amounts in the future.
4.1.3 Making Temporary Investments

The third reason you might hold cash is in anticipation of a near-term need for the funds. Perhaps you’re saving for a vacation or a new car, or maybe you’re planning to buy a home. Or you might have sold some other assets recently and haven’t yet decided how to reinvest the funds. During the recent ups and downs in the stock market, many investors used cash accounts to temporarily store funds as they bought and sold stocks.
4.1.4 How Much Should You Hold in Cash?

Financial experts disagree as to how much money a household should hold in cash. Very conservative advice suggests that you should have enough liquid assets to cover five to eight months of regular expenses. Others suggest that two months is more than enough and recommend investing the rest for higher returns. For an average household with expenses of $2,000 per month, these rules of thumb would imply that the family should hold between $4,000 and $16,000 in cash or liquid assets. Even if the family split the difference and held $10,000 in liquid assets, these assets would greatly reduce the risk of cash shortfall in the event of a big shock to household income. But the cost can also be significant. You will forego the money you might have earned on an alternative investment— likely involving some risk—with that cash. You have to decide if having the cash

FOR EXAM PLE
How Much Does It Cost to Be Safe? Suppose you keep $4,000 in a checking account that earns 0 percent interest and $6,000 in a short-term savings account that earns 2 percent interest per year. Let’s assume also that your alternative to holding cash would be an investment you expect to earn 8 percent per year. The opportunity cost of holding this much in cash is the average annual amount in cash multiplied by the difference between the interest you could earn on an alternative investment and the interest you earn on the cash account. The annual lost interest earnings are substantial: ($4,000 0.08) ($6,000 0.06), or $680 per year. However, the reduced risk might more than make up for the lost interest earnings. You may not be willing or able to take much risk. You should assess your cash needs for transactions and emergencies and have sources you can tap into in an emergency.
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is worth it. The loss of interest earnings may be more than made up for by the reduction in risk. If you have a high risk of job loss, you might consider holding a conservatively large amount in cash. But if you have a secure job and alternative sources of funds for emergencies, you might hold only enough to meet your needs. Each strategy has costs and benefits that you must carefully identify and evaluate.

SELF-CHECK
1. Define cash management. 2. Name the three general reasons for holding cash.

4.2 Rules of Effective Cash Management
Effective cash management minimizes the risk of bank charges for overdrafts and extra interest or penalties on overdue payments. Keeping track of cash flow is also necessary for budgeting so that you can achieve financial goals. In this section, we consider four practices that, if followed, result in better cash management outcomes.
4.2.1 Balancing Your Checkbook Every Month

Regularly balancing your checkbook is important. With the use of checks, debit cards, and automated teller machines (ATMs), it’s very easy to lose track of how much you spend, particularly when more than one person is using the same account. If you don’t balance your checkbook regularly, you’re more likely to exceed your budget or, worse, bounce checks. Balancing your checkbook can be a daunting bookkeeping task if you write many checks or use your debit card often, particularly if you aren’t careful about entering withdrawals and deposits. But the benefits to your finances far outweigh the costs. The objective is to reconcile the balance your bank reports on its statement with the balance recorded in your checkbook register. To do this, you need to first adjust the bank balance for any additional checks and deposits that aren’t reflected on the statement. Then you need to adjust your checkbook register to reflect checks and deposit transactions that aren’t yet recorded, as well as any bank charges or interest. If there’s still a discrepancy between the checkbook balance and the bank statement balance, you should go over the withdrawals and deposits again to be sure you haven’t missed any, and you should recheck your addition and subtraction.
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Because a bank statement is based on computerized account records, it is highly unlikely that such a statement will contain any mathematical errors. There is, however, the possibility of errors in automatic withdrawals or ATM transactions. You may even find that someone has fraudulently accessed your account. You should try to discover any such problems promptly because delay in discovering and reporting an incident of abuse or error makes it more difficult to get the problem corrected.
4.2.2 Paying Your Bills on Time

Timely payment of bills not only reduces your costs but also minimizes the risk that your credit rating will be hurt. A history of late payments makes you a less attractive credit risk. If your credit rating is poor, you may not be able to qualify for loans, you may have to pay higher rates of interest, and you may have increased insurance premiums. By paying your bills on time, you also avoid getting annoying phone calls from your creditors. Although many people use ATMs or check online to determine their checking account balances, doing only these things is a poor substitute for reconciling a checkbook. The balance shown on the ATM receipt is not an accurate reflection of the true account balance because it doesn’t include transactions that have not yet posted.
4.2.3 Paying Yourself First

The single most common advice given by financial planners is “Pay yourself first.” What this means is that you should set aside the money necessary for achieving personal goals before you do anything else. If you wait until the end of the month to see how much is left to put into savings, inevitably there will be none left. If, instead, you treat savings as a primary expenditure and take it off the top before paying any other expenses, you are more likely to stick to your financial plan and avoid casual erosion of your cash flow. There are many convenient ways to pay yourself first. Most banks and financial institutions offer the option of automatic funds transfer, by which you arrange to have a certain amount automatically transferred from your checking to your savings or investment account after your paycheck is deposited. Another useful tool is automatic bill paying. Not only can you arrange directly with your creditor or service provider for automatic payments each month, you can take advantage of online bill-paying services that electronically pay all your regular bills each month. This can be particularly helpful for busy individuals.
4.2.4 Evaluating Alternative Accounts and Providers

Effective cash management requires that you carefully evaluate your alternatives and select the services and service providers that best meet your needs. You have
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many providers and services to choose from, and they vary widely in interest paid, fees, safety, and customer service.

SELF-CHECK
1. List the four rules of effective cash management. 2. Cite two ways to pay yourself first.

4.3 Selecting a Financial Institution
At one time, cash management services could be obtained only at certain types of financial institutions. Today, many different types of financial institutions provide such services. The good news and the bad news is that you now have many choices. This is good news because competition often results in higher interest paid on accounts and lower interest charged on loans. It’s bad news because having more choices means it takes more time and effort to investigate your alternatives thoroughly. The various types of financial institutions are listed and defined in the following sections, but the differences between them are small and are becoming less important. In general, financial institutions are classified as depository or nondepository, based on where they primarily get their money to invest: ▲ Depository institutions—such as commercial banks, savings institutions, and credit unions—get their funds from customer deposits. ▲ Nondepository institutions—such as insurance companies, mortgage companies, and finance companies—get funds from other sources. The different types of institutions in each of these categories are distinguished by what they primarily invest in.
4.3.1 Depository Institutions

Depository institutions include commercial banks, several types of savings institutions, and credit unions. All these types of firms are similar in two major ways: ▲ Their primary source of funds is customer deposits. ▲ Their primary source of income is interest earned on loans. An important distinction between accounts held by banks and those held by mutual funds, brokerage funds, and insurance companies is insurance coverage
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against the organization going bankrupt. Most checking, savings, and certificate of deposit (CD) accounts in depository institutions are insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), a government-sponsored insurance agency, or a comparable federal agency, and thus are very safe places to put your money. Personal accounts held in commercial banks are insured for up to $100,000 per depositor by the FDIC. A common misconception is that this insurance covers accounts up to $100,000, but the guarantee is for $100,000 per depositor in a single institution. So, a good rule of thumb is to keep no more than $100,000 at any institution or to keep it in two different names (e.g., your name and your spouse’s name). On the other hand, checking and savings accounts offered by mutual funds, brokerage firms, and insurance companies are not insured. So, even if an uninsured account pays a little higher interest than an insured one, it might not be worth the risk.
Commercial Banks

Often simply called a “bank,” a commercial bank is a depository institution that gets its funds from checking and savings account deposits and uses the money to provide a wide array of financial services, including business and personal loans, mortgages, and credit cards.
Savings Institutions

There are a number of types of savings institutions, including savings and loan (S&L) associations, depository institutions that receive funds primarily from household deposits and use most of their funds to make home mortgage loans), thrift institutions, and savings banks. Savings institutions were originally designed to give individuals access to banking services previously available (through commercial banks) only to businesses. Thus, savings institutions were at first limited to offering savings accounts and making home and personal loans to individuals. Now, savings institutions offer a more competitive selection of checking and savings accounts; they can even offer credit cards, business loans, and financial planning services. However, savings institutions are still primarily home mortgage lenders. In fact, S&Ls are required to use at least 70 percent of their money to make home mortgage loans, as opposed to other types of loans. As with commercial banks, accounts in S&Ls are insured for up to $100,000 per depositor. Although the various types of savings institutions are likely to offer similar products and services, one distinction among them is their form of ownership. A stock-held savings institution is owned by stockholders. A mutual savings institution is owned by its depositors. If you have an account in a mutual savings institution, even though the rates of return are competitive, the earnings you receive on your investments are called dividends rather than interest. If the mutual savings institution is very profitable in a given year, you receive a
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higher dividend that year because the dividend is the way the company passes on the profits to its owner-depositors.
Credit Unions

A credit union is a special form of mutual depository institution. It gets its funds from checking and savings deposits and makes loans to its depositors, who are also the owners of the institution. An important distinction between credit unions and other depository institutions is that credit unions have nonprofit status and often use a partially volunteer labor force, allowing them a low-cost advantage. Their reduced costs often mean that credit unions can offer lower loan rates and higher interest. Depositors in credit unions are insured for up to $100,000 by the National Credit Union Association, which operates the National Credit Union Share Insurance Fund (NCUSIF). Credit unions, which are a good choice for students, were originally designed to give individuals access to personal credit, which was not widely available at commercial banks and savings institutions. At that time, credit union members were supposed to have a common bond, such as a religious or employment affiliation. For example, the federal government has a credit union for government employees and their families. Similarly, most states have credit unions for public employees. The common bond requirement, particularly for smaller employers or organizations, necessarily limited the size of these institutions and the services they could provide. Today, the common bond requirement of credit unions is defined fairly loosely. For example, some credit unions limit membership to people who live in a particular town or area. Credit unions can now be just as large as competing banks and offer a similar selection of products, including credit cards and mortgages. This is great news because credit unions can often beat the rates offered by other financial institutions because they pass on their profits to their owner-customers. The rates paid on savings are higher, and the rates charged on auto and other loans are lower. To find a credit union, you can go to the Credit Union National Association Web site, at www.cuna.org.
Web-Only Financial Institutions

Web-only financial institutions do not have physical locations but offer a menu of cash management accounts, loans, and investments. Presumably, web-only firms might have a cost advantage over traditional depository institutions, but consumers seeking higher interest and lower loan rates are cautioned to check out an institution’s credentials before sending money. For more information about online banks, you can visit several government regulator Web sites: www.fdic.gov (FDIC), www.occ.treas.gov (Office of the Comptroller of the Currency), and www.ots.treas.gov (Office of Thrift Supervision). At the FDIC Web site, you can find out whether a particular bank is legitimate
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and whether it is insured. If you have visited a bank Web site that appears fraudulent, you can report it there.
4.3.2 Nondepository Institutions

Nondepository institutions include ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ mutual fund companies. life insurance companies. brokerage firms. other financial services firms.

Although nondepository institutions have always offered loans in competition with banks, savings institutions, and credit unions, only recently have they begun to provide cash management services. They now compete with depository institutions for their primary customers by offering a full range of cash management products and services. For consumers, this means more choices and potentially lower prices. Notably, however, none of the accounts offered by these firms are federally insured.
Mutual Fund Companies

A mutual fund company is an investment company that sells shares to investors and then invests the pool of funds in a selection of financial securities. Some mutual fund companies have low-risk mutual fund investment account options that also allow limited check writing. These accounts are not federally insured.
Life Insurance Companies

A life insurance company sells life insurance policies to provide financial security for dependents in the event of the death of the policy owner. Its primary source of funds is therefore the payments made to purchase the policies, usually called the policy premiums. These companies invest the collected premiums in stocks, bonds, and other financial assets. Many life insurance products include savings and investment features and thus can be considered an alternative to other savings accounts. In addition, life insurance companies are active lenders in the home mortgage market.
Brokerage Firms

A brokerage firm is a company that facilitates investors’ purchases of stocks, bonds, and other investments. An investor generally keeps money in an account with a brokerage firm and authorizes an employee of the firm, called a broker, to take money out of the account to pay for new purchases for the investor and to deposit money received from sales of the investor’s securities. A brokerage firm usually makes its money by charging a commission for each purchase and sale.
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Today, more banks are competing for the brokerage business; in turn, traditional brokerage firms are offering a variety of cash management services and products.
Other Financial Services Firms

Many financial institutions that previously fit into one category or another have been trying to redefine themselves as multiservice financial institutions to provide one-stop shopping for their customers and to take advantage of their existing market penetration. For example, State Farm Insurance, previously a large insurance company, has added mutual funds and cash management products to its offerings. These firms offer a fairly complete menu of checking and savings accounts, insurance products, consumer and mortgage loans, and mutual fund investments.
4.3.3 Evaluating Financial Institutions

With so many different financial institutions to choose from, how should you decide which to use? You should base your decision on how each financial service provider rates on the “four P’s”: ▲ Products: The ideal financial institution has all the products you need to manage your cash effectively. Begin with a list of the products and services you’d like. Find out which institutions offer the greatest number of them and compare based on quality. For example, a savings account offered by a federally insured depository institution is obviously less risky than one offered by an uninsured financial institution. ▲ Price: Price includes both the interest you earn on liquid asset accounts and the fees you pay. The fees can make all the difference between one product and another. Many institutions offer similar products, but their pricing can vary dramatically. Interest rates on demand savings accounts—that is, accounts that allow you to withdraw your funds at any time “on demand”—are usually much lower than those for other types of saving. For example, the average annual rate paid on interest-earning checking was 1.5 percent in November 2006, whereas a 6-month CD, which required that you leave your money on deposit for 6 months, averaged 4.65 percent. Financial institutions also differ substantially in their fees. Some require that you maintain a minimum balance in your checking account. It’s fairly common for an account to have a monthly fee if the balance drops below a stated minimum, which might be $100 or $1,000. Bounced check fees can range from $10 to $50. These fees can eat into your returns very easily. Retail banks make most of their profits on the fees they charge to retail customers.
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▲ People: Customer service, although somewhat less important today than it used to be, thanks to the use of electronic transactions, should still count. Consider whether the main office and drive-up tellers are open during convenient times. Are the lines long? When you call, do you get to speak to a knowledgeable person? Are your phone calls returned promptly and courteously? In some instances, you may be choosing between smaller locally owned institutions that focus on relationship banking and larger multistate institutions that offer more services. A bank near your workplace may seem like a good choice, but it may be so understaffed over the lunch hour that you would have to wait 30 minutes just to get to a teller. You should make this decision based on your unique needs and preferences. You may be willing to live with a smaller selection of products for a more personal touch. If there are substantial differences in costs, you should also weigh these. ▲ Place: Where are the ATMs located? Where is the main office? In deciding between a nearby institution and one that is farther away but offers a slightly better interest rate or lower costs, you should consider whether the cost advantage will outweigh the inconvenience. It’s a good idea to collect information from several financial institutions and see how they compare. Although you’re not limited to using only one financial institution, it can be more cost-effective to do so. Not only do you save time through one-stop shopping, but you may be entitled, as a depositor, to receive better consumer and home loan rates.

SELF-CHECK
1. Define depository institution, mutual savings institution, and credit union. 2. Give four examples of nondepository institutions. 3. What type of financial service provider is a good choice for students?

4.4 Cash Management Products and Services
Financial institutions provide cash management services that include checking and savings accounts, loans, and asset management services. Each may play an important role in your financial plan, so you need to understand the available options, as well as the costs and benefits of various features.
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4.4.1 Checking Accounts

One of the reasons for holding cash is to manage transaction needs. These needs are often best met with a checking account. Checking accounts allow you to make deposits and pay bills easily. Before opening one, you should get answers to the following questions: ▲ Will you earn interest on your balance? If so, at what rate? ▲ Will you be required to keep a minimum balance in the account? If so, how much is it, and what is the penalty for going below that minimum? ▲ Is there a monthly fee? If so, how much? ▲ Can you access the account with a debit card (i.e., a card that enables you to withdraw money from your account electronically)? ▲ Does the account offer overdraft protection? ▲ Are there any other fees? All checking accounts are demand deposit accounts in that you have the right to “demand” withdrawal of your deposited funds with little or no notice to the bank. For cash management, the most important distinction between types of checking accounts is whether they pay interest: ▲ Regular checking accounts: Although your particular bank or savings institution may call it something different, such as “basic checking,” the key feature of a regular checking account is that it pays no interest. A bank may advertise these accounts as “free checking” because it waives the monthly service charge if you keep a minimum balance—anywhere from $100 to $1,000 or more. Not all regular checking accounts require a minimum balance, however. Regular checking accounts usually also limit the number of checks you can write each month and are unlikely to offer additional services, such as debit cards, without assessing additional fees. Because of the generally low account balances and the high cost of processing transactions and maintaining records, financial institutions make very little money on regular checking accounts. Instead, institutions rely on this type of account to entice people to use other services—services on which they make more profit. ▲ Interest-earning checking accounts: Regular checking accounts offer minimal services. A checking account that pays interest and includes other features, such as debit cards and unlimited check writing, might better meet your needs. Such accounts usually have higher minimum balance requirements than regular checking accounts. If your balance falls below the minimum, your interest rate on the account is reduced or, in some cases, eliminated, and you may pay a fee—typically $3 to $7 per month. A checking account that pays interest is technically called a
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negotiated order of withdrawal (NOW) account, but few institutions use this terminology. Your bank may call it “Gold Plus Checking” or “First Checking” or some other name that sounds attractive. In addition to paying interest, NOW accounts may include other services. For example, most financial institutions no longer include copies of written checks with monthly checking account statements, but this service may be available with NOW accounts. If you plan to hold cash reserves in a checking account and will therefore be able to meet the minimum balance requirement, an interest-earning checking account is certainly a better choice than a regular checking account. However, because these accounts generally pay lower interest than savings account alternatives, you should consider the opportunity costs involved in keeping your cash reserves in checking rather than transferring them to a higher-interest savings alternative. Recall that the opportunity cost of a particular action is what you have to give up in order to take that action.
4.4.2 Savings Accounts

Whereas checking accounts vary in whether they pay interest, all savings accounts pay interest. It’s not always better to have an interest-earning checking account. You need to compare the account’s restrictions and fees to its non-interest-earning alternative before making that decision. Many interest-earning checking accounts have monthly service charges or other fees that more than offset the interest if your account balances are relatively low. The rate of interest depends on the type of account. Savings accounts can be either of the following: ▲ Demand deposits: Like a checking account, a demand deposit savings account allows you to withdraw your money any time. This makes these accounts more liquid than those that require you to leave your money deposited for a set period of time. Because demand deposits are easily converted to cash, they are less risky to you; because they’re less risky, they pay a lower rate of interest on balances. (In general, the riskier the investment or loan, the higher the interest rate.) ▲ Time deposits: Whereas demand deposits can be withdrawn at any time, a time deposit account requires that you keep the money in for a minimum time and may require a waiting period before you can withdraw funds. When you deposit your money for a set time, the institution can more easily make profitable long-term investments, and it can, in turn, pay you a higher interest rate. Generally, the longer the time restriction, the higher the rate. Because a time deposit is less liquid than other cash management account alternatives, it exposes you to greater risk. You may not be able to withdraw your money in a hurry, or there may be a cost
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to doing so. However, the higher rates paid on these accounts make them preferable when the account is earmarked to meet a particular financial goal—perhaps a house down payment—and you are fairly certain you won’t need the money sooner. The power of compound interest helps your savings grow faster.
4.4.3 Savings Alternatives

Recently, short-term savings options have increased markedly. To select the best type for your needs, you must understand the different types: ▲ Regular savings accounts: Regular savings accounts were once called passbook accounts because the account holder actually had a little book in which the financial institution would enter deposit and withdrawal information. Although these types of accounts still exist, account records are now kept electronically, and your bank sends you periodic statements, either monthly or quarterly, showing deposits, withdrawals, fees, and interest. In hopes of saving mailing and printing costs, financial institutions are developing online access tools that may eventually replace mailed statements. You may find it convenient to have a regular savings account in the same institution as your checking account. Generally, that makes it easy to move money between accounts. Sometimes, you can arrange for an automatic transfer to keep from bouncing a check. ▲ CDs: You get the highest interest rates on savings with time deposit accounts. A CD is a savings account that pays a stated rate of interest if you leave your money on deposit for a certain time. The end of that period is called the maturity date. Rates are higher for CDs of longer duration and for larger deposit amounts. For example, a 5-year CD can earn twice as much interest as a 1-year CD. It definitely pays to shop around. Even the rates paid on CDs with similar maturity dates can vary widely. CDs offered by depository institutions are very safe because they are federally insured, but CDs are not highly liquid because you may not be able to access funds immediately when you need them. If you need your funds before the end of the CD term, you can generally get them, but you incur a penalty—a sharply reduced interest rate, usually equivalent to a demand deposit rate. If you cash out a CD within a short time, you may even pay a penalty fee in addition to that. It makes sense to manage your money so as to minimize the likelihood that this kind of thing will happen. One way is to separate your investments into several smaller CDs that mature at different times, a strategy sometimes called “laddering.” Instead of putting $10,000 in a CD that matures in 5 years, for example, you might put $5,000 in the 5-year CD, $3,000 in a 2-year CD, $1,000 in a 12-month CD, and $1,000 in a 6-month CD. Although you earn lower
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FOR EXAM PLE
Watch Those Maturity Dates Consider what happened to Joseph Gianetti, a retiree with three adult children. He decided to give a tax-free gift of $11,000 to each of his children in 2004 and was planning to take it from a $35,000 5-year CD that was maturing at the end of the year. Unfortunately, when he tried to withdraw the funds in December, he discovered that the CD had actually matured in October. Joseph had apparently overlooked the notice from his bank. Because he had not responded, the bank had rolled it into another 5-year CD; Joseph had to pay a penalty to cash it in. The moral of this story is that you should keep careful track of maturity dates and be sure to read any documentation from your bank.

rates on the shorter-term CDs, the reduced risk of incurring an early withdrawal penalty may outweigh the opportunity cost. When a CD matures, your financial institution usually automatically rolls over the funds into a comparable account unless you file the necessary paperwork. For example, if you have your money in a 1-year CD, the institution rolls it into another 1-year CD at maturity. Your financial institution may offer special types of CDs. With so many alternatives to consider, you need to make sure you fully understand the terms of a CD before you invest. The FDIC, Web site at www.fdic.gov, offers several tips for investors in CDs to consider. ▲ Money market mutual funds: As described in Section 4.3.2, mutual fund companies are financial companies that pool investors’ funds and use the money to purchase a variety of financial assets. Most companies now offer one or more money market mutual funds with characteristics that make them alternatives to other liquid savings accounts (e.g., limited check-writing privileges). These funds invest in short-term, low-risk financial assets, such as short-term debt securities called money market securities, which is why the funds are called money market mutual funds. When you buy shares of a money market mutual fund, the interest depends on the interest that the mutual fund is earning on its investment portfolio. Generally, this is 1 to 2 percentage points higher than what you can earn on a regular savings account. Of course, these higher returns come with greater risk. Although money market mutual funds may be sold by your bank, they are not federally insured, nor is the rate guaranteed. If interest rates drop, you earn less than you originally expected; if the fund goes belly-up, you could lose everything.
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▲ Money market accounts: A money market account is similar to a money market mutual fund in that it pays interest that fluctuates with market rates on money market securities. Again, the rate is generally higher than that on regular savings accounts. Like money market mutual funds, money market accounts usually allow some check-writing privileges. Today, you can sometimes get unlimited check writing. But, you must usually keep a fairly high minimum balance in a money market account, so, as with interest-earning checking accounts, you need to consider the opportunity cost of holding more in the account than you would otherwise. Finally, it’s important to remember that money market accounts offered by depository institutions are usually federally insured, whereas those offered by insurance companies and brokerage firms are not. ▲ Government savings bonds: U.S. savings bonds provide short-term, low-risk investing. These bonds are exempt from state and local income taxes and pay interest that fluctuates with changes in market interest rates. There are several types: • Series EE bonds, renamed “Patriot bonds” after September 11, 2001: These are bonds issued by the U.S. Treasury. Investors pay 50 percent of the face value, which may be as little as $50 or as much as $10,000, and can redeem the bonds for the original price plus interest earned over the holding period. To purchase a Series EE bond with a $50 face value, you’d pay $25. These bonds are called discount bonds because the purchase price is less than the face value of the bond. The bond is redeemable for the full $50 face value when it has accumulated $25 in interest. The maturity date is uncertain—it depends on the interest rate. When you know the interest rate, you can figure out how much time it will take for your bond investment to double in value by applying the Rule of 72: Divide the number 72 by the interest rate. The result is an approximation of the number of years it takes to double the money. You can use this rule of thumb with any investment. The interest, in addition to being exempt from state and local income taxation, is not subject to federal income tax until the bond is cashed in. For lower- and middle-income families, the interest income is exempt if it is used to pay for qualified higher education expenses. Because these bonds are very low risk, the interest paid is comparable to that for other types of cash accounts with similar maturities. If you live in an area with high state and local tax rates, though, the tax advantages may make this preferable to taxable cash accounts. • Series HH bonds: If you have a Series EE bond that has accumulated enough interest to be redeemed at its face value and you’d like to receive regular interest income from your savings without having to pay federal income tax on the whole amount, you can use your Series
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EE bonds to buy Series HH bonds. This is the only way to purchase Series HH bonds. These bonds pay interest to the holder semiannually, and this interest income is subject to federal income tax but exempt from state and local income tax. • Series I bonds: In 1998, the U.S. Treasury began offering Series I savings bonds. These bonds are similar to EE bonds in their tax features but are designed to provide protection from inflation. The semiannual interest rate is fixed when you purchase the bond, but the face value on which the interest is calculated adjusts semiannually with the consumer price index. Although individuals can buy up to $30,000 in Series I bonds each year, sales have been slow because inflation has been relatively low in the past decade.
4.4.4 Other Cash Management Products and Services

Financial institutions offer a wide variety of cash management services besides those described so far in this chapter, including electronic banking services and specialized checks. Your bank or savings institution may also offer credit cards, car loans, home mortgages, financial planning and investment management services, and insurance. Banking services today include the following: ▲ Debit cards: Many checking accounts allow you to use a debit card, a plastic card encoded with account information that enables you to withdraw funds electronically to pay for purchases. You need only swipe the card through the retailer’s point-of-sale (POS) terminal and enter your personal identification number (PIN) to authorize the withdrawal. Consumers like the freedom from carrying cash or checkbooks and the ease of making transactions. Of course, the simplicity of paying with a debit card also means that you may be more likely to overspend. You need to be sure to record debit transactions as they occur so that your financial records are up-to-date. Note that using a debit card is identical to writing a check—the only real difference is that the debit, or withdrawal, occurs at the moment you use the card rather than when the check clears. Although debit cards look almost identical to credit cards, discussed in Chapter 5, they’re quite different. When you use a debit card, you’re paying with your own money rather than borrowing money. You should never keep your debit card PIN in written form in your wallet or purse. You should select a PIN that is something you can remember but that will not be too easy to guess. And you should not use numbers a thief would be likely to try, such as 1234 or 1111. And because many debit cards can be used to complete online or phone transactions without the entry of a PIN, you should guard your card carefully. For more information on identity theft and how to avoid it, see Section 5.6.2.
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▲ ATMs: ATMs have reduced the demand for tellers, thus allowing financial institutions to cut their overhead costs. ATMs offer the convenience of 24-hour-a-day access, and they can be found at hundreds of locations. ATM transactions are free only when you use a terminal owned by your financial institution. If you withdraw money at a terminal owned by another bank, you have to pay a fee—anywhere from $1.50 to $4.00— and your own institution may charge you $1.00 to $2.00 as well. These small dollar amounts may not seem like much, but they can easily add up to more than the annual interest on your account! ▲ Other electronic banking services: Most financial institutions now accept automatic deposits of paychecks and allow you to authorize automatic electronic withdrawals for regular payments of everything from loan payments to monthly fees at retailers. Many people now make all their regular bill payments electronically, either through their financial institutions or private services. You should weigh the monthly costs against the convenience. An additional advantage of online banking is that many services let you download financial information to financial management and tax planning software packages. Some financial institutions also offer special asset management accounts (AMAs) that automatically transfer your account balances among different accounts and investments to get you the highest rate of return; however, these accounts often require high minimum balances. ▲ Specialized checks: Financial institutions also provide various kinds of specialized checks, including the following: • Traveler’s checks: Traveler’s checks are checks issued in specific denominations (e.g., $10, $20, $50, $100) by large financial institutions that are accepted worldwide. The typical fee for issuance is 1 percent. The primary advantages are that, if traveler’s checks are lost or stolen, you can’t lose any money, and their replacement is guaranteed. • Certified checks: A certified check is a personal check drawn on your own account and guaranteed by the financial institution in which you have the account. Because the institution certifies (i.e., guarantees) that the funds are actually available and places a freeze on those funds, a certified check is accepted as cash for many official transactions, such as when you are paying off a car loan or making a down payment on a new home. Fees for this service range from $2 to $10. • Cashier’s checks: A cashier’s check is used similarly to a certified check, to make payments when the payee wants to be sure the funds are available. But instead of being drawn on your account, the check is drawn on the account of the financial institution itself and made out to the party the purchaser specifies. The person ordering the
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check pays the financial institution the amount of the check plus a fee between $2 and $10. • Money order: A money order is a legal request for a company to pay a particular sum of money to a person or business. In effect, a money order is like a check drawn on the account of a business. If you don’t have your own checking account, you can purchase money orders to pay your bills or other obligations. They’re sold by financial institutions, by the U.S. Post Office, and by businesses such as convenience stores and grocery stores, for a small fee.
4.4.5 Evaluating Your Options

How do you decide which products and services are most appropriate for your needs? What are the most important factors to consider? Recall that the basic purposes of cash management are to meet transaction needs, to develop a cash reserve for emergencies, and to have a safe place to park money. Because all these needs require that the account have minimal risk and be easy to access, your primary concerns should be liquidity and safety. When you’ve narrowed your choices to those meeting this initial screen, you should consider costs and aftertax interest earnings: ▲ Liquidity: Can you withdraw money from the account without incurring fees or losing any of your original investment? In evaluating your account options, pay careful attention to features that limit the account’s liquidity, such as minimum balance requirements, limitations on withdrawals, and number of transactions or checks allowed each month. ▲ Safety: Investment options differ in terms of level of risk, as do the institutions offering these options. Does a cash management account expose you to any risk of default by the financial institution? Is there any risk of losing your money? Is the interest rate paid on the account guaranteed, or does it fluctuate with market conditions? Because cash management accounts are earmarked as funds that you can’t afford to risk, you should consider limiting your choices to insured deposits and federally guaranteed investments. Although FDIC-insured accounts are obviously less risky than uninsured accounts, the failure of your financial institution would still impose some costs. During the 1980s, numerous S&Ls failed, and many insured depositors were unable to access their funds for several months, although they were eventually repaid by the government insurance program. ▲ Costs and after-tax interest: When you’re deciding between savings alternatives, you have to make trade-offs. Generally, the safer the investment and the institution, the lower the rate of interest paid. Accounts that are more liquid usually pay lower rates of interest and may have
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FOR EXAM PLE
Inflation: The Hidden Risk of “Safe Accounts” An often-overlooked risk of supposedly safe investments is inflation. Suppose you’re planning to buy a new mountain bike one year from now. The cost of the bike is $1,000 today, so you set aside $1,000 in your FDICinsured savings account at Safety First Bank, which pays 2 percent annual interest. At the end of the year, you’ll have $1,020. But what if inflation this year turns out to be 4 percent? The cost of the bike, if we assume that it goes up only by the average increase in the cost of goods, will have risen by 4 percent, to $1,040. The spending power of your $1,000 will actually have declined over the one-year period because it would have been enough to buy the bike at the beginning, but it’s not enough at the end of the year. Investors in “safe” accounts like this have practically zero risk of losing the nominal value of their invested money, but they still risk losing purchasing power through the eroding effects of inflation.

higher costs, such as monthly service charges, fees, and penalties. It’s not uncommon for an account advertised as “free” to include many hidden costs that are very profitable for the institution, such as fees for check printing, overdrafts, stop payments, and debit cards. You may find that the accounts have different rules for when they calculate and pay you interest. The frequency with which interest is calculated and added to your account is called compounding. The more often the interest compounds—daily instead of monthly, for example—the more you get the advantage of interest paid on interest, which is discussed in Chapter 1. The difficulty in comparing accounts is that the stated, or nominal, interest rate is not directly comparable between accounts if the accounts have different rates of compounding. The interest may also be eroded by fees, so that the actual annual rate of return on your invested funds may be lower than the nominal quoted rate of return. Fortunately for consumers of financial services, the Truth in Savings law requires that financial institutions report the annual percentage yield (APY) on all interest-earning accounts, in addition to the nominal rate. This measure adjusts for different compounding periods and any interest-like fees to make it possible to compare “apples with apples.” However, fees for specific services (e.g., debit cards, checks) aren’t factored into this calculation, so you still need to consider them. After finding the APY for each account, you shouldn’t forget to consider tax effects. Because returns on liquid savings accounts are already low, the additional
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costs of federal, state, and local income taxes can erode your yield to very low levels. If your APY on a regular savings account is 2 percent, for example, and your marginal tax rate is 40 percent, your after-tax yield is only 2 (1 0.4) 1.2 percent after you pay the taxes on your interest earnings. It’s a good idea to consider having multiple accounts that vary in liquidity, cost, and interest to maximize your overall return. Most people have a transaction account for regular bill paying and a highly liquid savings account for short-term emergency needs. As they build their emergency fund to a desirable level, they may attempt to increase their interest earnings by spreading their funds among higher-yield savings options, such as U.S. savings bonds and CDs with varying maturities. This makes sense because, in most financial emergencies, you don’t need the entire amount immediately. For example, if you lose your job, you need to cover only one month of expenses at a time.

SELF-CHECK
1. List five savings alternatives. 2. Define compounding, APY, and certificate of deposit. 3. What should be your primary concerns in evaluating your cash management alternatives?

4.5 Resolving Cash Management Problems
Unexpected cash management problems happen to everyone. It might be your own mistake, such as a bounced check or a seriously overdue bill. Or it could be someone else’s fault, such as depositing a check that the check writer doesn’t have the funds to cover. Worse yet, you may have your checkbook or debit card stolen. Here we consider some of these problems.
4.5.1 Bouncing a Check

The best way to avoid bouncing checks is to keep careful track of your cash flow. If the worst occurs, you can avoid hefty overdraft charges, often assessed by both your bank and the party to whom you wrote the bad check, by arranging for overdraft protection on your account. Overdraft protection can involve an automatic transfer from a different account or automatic credit in the amount of the overdraft. Credit of this type is similar to a credit card loan and may have a relatively high rate of interest, so you need to pay it off promptly. If you bounce a check, this information will be
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reported to one or more check approval companies (e.g., TeleCheck, CheckRite). These companies provide two valuable services to businesses: ▲ They take care of the hassle of collecting the amount of your bounced check (usually requiring cash or a certified check) and assessing any penalties. ▲ They keep an electronic record of individuals who have bounced checks at any participating business. Thus, if you bounce a check at the grocery store, your checks will be refused at all establishments using the same check approval service the grocery store uses until you’ve paid the amount due plus any fees (often $20 to $30). To maintain your ability to write checks, you should resolve an overdraft as quickly as possible. An additional cost of bouncing a check is that your depository institution also assesses a penalty, usually ranging from $20 to $30. Thus, your $50 bounced check to the local grocery store could end up costing you another $40 to $60 in penalties to the store and your bank.
4.5.2 Receiving a Bad Check

If you deposit a check and it bounces, your own institution often charges you a fee, even though you were not at fault. This fee is comparable to a bounced check fee ($20 to $30). If, as a result of the bad check, you bounce checks of your own, you pay penalties on those, too. Although you can try to get the wrongdoer to pay you back, you’re unlikely to be successful. Thus, the best way to avoid the problem is to take checks only from reliable sources and not to write checks against funds that have not yet been credited to your account.
4.5.3 Discovering Fraudulent Activity on Your Account

Suppose you are reconciling your bank statement and see a record of an electronic payment made to an internet retailer, but it’s for a transaction you never made. The risk of unauthorized use of cash management accounts has jumped with the rise in electronic transactions. If this unfortunately common occurrence happens to you, you need to act promptly to correct this “mistake.” By law, a contact phone number for each company or person who received payments from your account must be provided on your bank statement, so you can simply call and ask a company to reverse the charges. Although erroneous charges can be the result of legitimate errors, such as when someone has input an account number incorrectly, more often, the charge is part of a larger scam in which a company requests electronic payments from numerous accounts, counting on careless consumers not checking their statements carefully.
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When you call to contest a payment, the person who answers will likely say that you or another family member requested whatever you’re being charged for, over the phone or on the internet. Legally, your financial institution is not supposed to make payments without your authorization. A signed check is one form of authorization, and your PIN is another. But as more transactions are being made electronically without these verification procedures, it is more difficult for a bank to be the gatekeeper to your account. Thus, the primary responsibility lies with you to safeguard the account number and access. We talk more about identity theft in Section 5.6.2.
4.5.4 Stopping Payment on a Check

Sometimes, you might want to keep a person or business from cashing your check. For example, you might have paid a contractor to work on your house but realized soon after he left that he hadn’t actually finished the job. In this circumstance, you can have your bank issue a stop payment order on the check for a fee of $10 to $25. Although you can make this request by phone, you should follow up in writing to protect your rights in case the check slips through. Stop orders can be extended beyond their usual two-week period for an additional fee.
4.5.5 Getting Money in a Hurry

Nearly every college student has had to call home for money. Often, this can be handled by mailing a check. Suppose, though, that you’re in a serious financial bind and need money more quickly. In such a case, you might need to arrange for a wire transfer. With a wire transfer, for a fee, a bank electronically transfers funds to your account at another institution, usually in 24 hours or less. A faster but more expensive option than a wire transfer is to use a cashdelivery service such as Western Union, Money-gram, or American Express, which all have international branches and promise quick delivery of cash. If you’re away from home and have your wallet stolen, you should consider using one of them.

SELF-CHECK
1. List the possible consequences of writing a bad check. 2. What are your options for getting cash quickly?
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SUMMARY
Cash management involves many decisions related to cash payments and shortterm liquid investments. Most types of financial institutions offer a diverse menu of products and services. You should evaluate cash management service providers based on the four P’s (product, price, people, and place). After identifying which products you need, you should evaluate them based on liquidity, safety, costs, and APY.

KEY TERMS
Annual percentage yield (APY) The amount of interest paid each year, given as a percentage of the investment. The APY makes it possible to compare interest rates across accounts that have different compounding periods. A nondepository financial institution that helps its customers buy and sell financial securities. Management of cash payments and liquid investments. Liquid assets held to meet emergency cash needs. An account that pays a fixed rate of interest on funds left on deposit for a stated period of time. A depository institution that offers a wide variety of cash management services to business and individual customers. The frequency with which interest is calculated and added to an account. A nonprofit depository institution that is owned by its depositors. Deposit accounts, such as checking accounts, from which money can be withdrawn with little or no notice to the financial institution. Financial institutions that obtain funds from customer deposits. Bonds that sell for less than their face value.

Brokerage firm

Cash management Cash reserve Certificate of deposit (CD)

Commercial bank

Compounding Credit union Demand deposit accounts

Depository institutions Discount bonds

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Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) Life insurance company

A government-sponsored agency that insures customer accounts in banks and savings institutions. A nondepository financial institution that obtains funds from premiums paid for life insurance, invests in stocks and bonds, and makes mortgage loans. For a CD, the date on which the depositor can withdraw the invested amount and receive the stated interest. A mutual fund that holds a portfolio of short-term, low-risk securities issued by the federal government, its agencies, and large corporations and pays investors a rate of return that fluctuates with the interest earned on the portfolio. A savings account which pays interest that fluctuates with market rates on money market securities. A nondepository financial institution that sells shares to investors and invests the money in financial assets. A savings institution that is owned by its depositors. Financial institutions that get funds from sources other than deposits. A type of checking account that pays interest. An arrangement by which a financial institution places funds in a depositor’s checking account to cover overdrafts. A checking account that does not pay interest and requires the payment of a monthly service charge unless a minimum balance is maintained in the account. A method of calculating the time it will take a sum of money to double that involves dividing 72 by the rate of interest earned on the funds.

Maturity date

Money market mutual fund

Money market account

Mutual fund company

Mutual savings institution Nondepository institutions Negotiated order of withdrawal (NOW) account Overdraft protection

Regular checking account

Rule of 72

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Savings and loan (S&L) association

Stock-held savings institution Stop payment order

Time deposit account

U.S. savings bonds

Web-only financial institutions

Wire transfer

A depository institution that receives funds primarily from household deposits and uses most of its funds to make home mortgage loans. A savings institution that is owned by stockholders. An order by which a financial institution promises not to honor a check that a depositor has written. A savings account from which the depositor may not withdraw money, without penalty, until after a certain amount of time has passed. Bonds issued by the U.S. Treasury that pay interest that fluctuates with current Treasury security rates and that are exempt from state and local taxes. Financial institutions that do not have physical locations but offer a menu of cash management accounts, loans, and investments. Electronic transmittal of cash from an account in another location. A wire transfer requires payment of a fee.

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ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Go to www.wiley.com/college/bajtelsmit to assess your knowledge of cash and savings management. Measure your learning by comparing pre-test and post-test results.

Summary Questions
1. Which of the following is not one of the major reasons for holding cash? (a) avoiding unnecessary taxes (b) managing transactions needs (c) making temporary investments (d) preparing for cash emergencies 2. Which of the following would be considered a transaction account? (a) checking account (b) savings account (c) certificate of deposit (d) mutual fund account 3. Checking your balance at an ATM is now considered an effective alternative to balancing a checkbook. True or false? 4. Paying yourself first means: (a) buying items you desire before paying bills. (b) setting aside a reasonable sum for entertainment before paying bills. (c) putting money into savings before making other monthly expenditures. (d) keeping separate accounts from your spouse for personal needs. 5. Which of the following is a nondepository institution? (a) commercial bank (b) mutual fund company (c) savings and loan association (d) credit union 6. Checking accounts and savings accounts at commercial banks are both types of demand deposit accounts. True or false? 7. Which of the following is normally a disadvantage of a money market account? (a) no interest paid on balances (b) may impose higher fees for various services
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(c) higher minimum balance required than other checking alternatives (d) cannot be redeemed in the first six months. 8. Which of the following type of account is not federally insured? (a) money market mutual fund (b) CD (c) regular savings account (d) NOW account 9. An arrangement under which a bank places funds into a depositor’s checking account if there are insufficient funds to cover all checks written is known as: (a) check kiting. (b) an insufficient fund charge. (c) a check protection plan. (d) overdraft protection. 10. Stop payment orders are usually good for a one-month period. True or false?

Applying This Chapter
1. Hanna is a college student who is working to pay for her own education. She has no savings and usually has no money left at the end of each pay period. She recently received an inheritance of $5,000. Why might it be a good idea for her to set aside some of that money in a cash account rather than use all of it for a down payment on a car? 2. Name the four rules of cash management and identify a consequence of not following each of them. 3. Under what circumstances might if be worthwhile to pay a monthly fee for a bill-paying service? 4. Zelda has just moved to a new state and needs to open a checking account. Which types of financial institutions would you recommend that she call for information? 5. Luis, a student at a large public university, opened his checking account at the largest bank in town because it offered free checking to students. He is planning to buy a car and will need a car loan. Explain why he might be able to get a lower interest rate at the university credit union than at the large bank. Which other factors should he consider? 6. Use the Rule of 72 to determine how long it will take for a $100 Series EE savings bond that you received as a wedding gift to mature if the average interest paid over the time you hold the bond is 4.25 percent?
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7. Which savings account will have a greater APY: one that pays 2 percent interest compounded monthly or one that pays 2 percent interest compounded daily? 8. Suppose you’re considering investing $1,000 in either a five-year CD that pays 5 percent compounded semiannually or a Series EE bond with an average interest of 5 percent. Your tax rate (including both state and federal income taxes) is 30 percent. What factors should you consider in deciding between the two investment options?

Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

YOU TRY IT

Bounced Checks
Erica White, a college junior, normally prides herself on keeping control of her finances. But the fall semester of 2004 was a disaster. She contracted West Nile virus and was very sick for months. It was an effort just to keep up with her classes, let alone balance her checkbook. Because she had to quit her part-time job, she knew her checking account balance was getting a little low, but she didn’t realize quite how low until she got a bank notice indicating that she had bounced several checks. She had written four checks that were returned: ▲ Purpose Valley Electric Authority: $40.32 (electric bill). ▲ Safeway: $64.28 (groceries). ▲ Hot Wok Café: $8.54 (take-out Chinese). ▲ Papa John’s: $13.68 (pizza). Erica’s current account balance is $119.40.

1. Assuming that each retailer (but not the electric company) charges her a penalty of $20 and her bank charges $25 for each bounced check, how much will this cash management mistake cost her in total? 2. How much does she need to deposit in the account to have enough to make good on all her bills plus pay her penalties?

expenses that average only $3,000, they’ve been able to accumulate $14,000 over the past year in a joint savings account that pays 3 percent interest. They also generally keep a little more than their $500 minimum balance in a checking account that pays no interest. If their checking account drops below the $500 minimum in any given month, the bank assesses a monthly fee of $10. This happens to them about once every three months. Phil and Kendra have no investment accounts other than their savings account and their employmentbased retirement funds. Phil is trying to talk Kendra into putting $5,000 of their savings into a higher-interest CD and another $5,000 into a stock mutual fund. He has found an online bank that is offering 6 percent interest on five-year CDs, and he has been investigating several stock funds. Kendra is not so sure. To investigate, she asks their current bank about cash management account alternatives that might provide them with better interest earnings. The bank officer suggests that they consider moving their checking to an interest-earning account that pays 2 percent per year and carries a $1,000 minimum balance. He suggests spreading their investments into several CDs with increasing maturities. The five-year CD at this institution pays 5.75 percent. 1. How much do you think the Gonzalezes should hold in liquid accounts? Explain your reasoning. 2. What are the risks of putting the money in CDs or in stocks instead of keeping it in regular savings? 3. Are Kendra and Phil exposed to any unusual liquidity risks because they work for the same company?

Liquidity or High Returns?
Phil and Kendra Gonzalez both work for the same hightech company as software designers, and their combined take-home pay is $5,200 per month. With monthly

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Appendix A-1
EDUCATION FUNDING

Learning Objective: Estimate future education expenses and develop a plan for funding future education costs that incorporates government savings incentives.

Like retirement funding, education funding takes advance planning. Fortunately, college funding isn’t as costly as retirement, but the costs are still substantial, and you generally won’t have as long to save (18 years if you start when your child is born). The education funding problem is remarkably similar to that of retirement funding, so the methodology for estimating the monthly savings amount you’ll need is the same. You’ll first estimate how much you’ll need and then calculate the monthly contribution you should make to meet your savings goal.
How Much Will Future Education Cost?

For the 2011-2012 school year, the average cost of one year of undergraduate education (tuition, room, board, transportation, books, and supplies) was $21,447 at a public in-state university and $40,476 at a private university. Approximately $10,000 of this amount is for room, board, and transportation costs, which may cause many families to seriously consider local colleges and universities. Figure A.1.1 Future College Costs provides estimated future costs for the next 18 years under various assumptions concerning annual increases in costs in college costs (from 4 to 8%). State university budgets have taken big hits in recent years, resulting in double-digit tuition increases. This means that total expenses for children who are nearing college age today are likely to be on the high end of this table, making it more difficult for middle income families to afford traditional 4 year schools. Consider the case of Holly and Gary Johnson, a married couple who have a 14 year old son Jake who wants to attend a public university in his state. In developing a financial plan, the Johnsons decided that one of their personal financial goals was to establish an education funding plan for Jake. His grandparents have promised to contribute $5,000 per year. Jake has saved $6,000 from working summer jobs and plans to work part-time while going to college. He is

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Figure A.1.1

Child’s Age Today 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Public-In State School Annual College Cost Inflation 4% 6% 8%

Public-Out of State School Annual College Cost Inflation 4% 6% 8%

4%

Private University Annual College Cost Inflation 6% 8%

$21,447 $21,447 $21,447 $33,974 $33,974 $33,974 $42,224 $42,224 $42,224 22,305 22,734 23,163 35,333 36,012 36,692 43,913 44,757 45,602 23,197 24,098 25,016 36,746 38,173 39,627 45,669 47,443 49,250 24,125 25,544 27,017 38,216 40,464 42,797 47,496 50,289 53,190 25,090 27,076 29,178 39,745 42,891 46,221 49,396 53,307 57,445 26,094 28,701 31,513 41,335 45,465 49,919 51,372 56,505 62,041 27,137 30,423 34,034 42,988 48,193 53,912 53,427 59,896 67,004 28,223 32,248 36,756 44,707 51,084 58,225 55,564 63,489 72,365 29,352 34,183 39,697 46,496 54,149 62,884 57,786 67,299 78,154 30,526 36,234 42,873 48,356 57,398 67,914 60,098 71,337 84,406 31,747 38,408 46,302 50,290 60,842 73,347 62,502 75,617 91,158 33,017 40,713 50,007 52,301 64,493 79,215 65,002 80,154 98,451 34,337 43,156 54,007 54,393 68,362 85,552 67,602 84,963 106,327 35,711 45,745 58,328 56,569 72,464 92,396 70,306 90,061 114,833 37,139 48,490 62,994 58,832 76,812 99,788 73,118 95,464 124,020 38,625 51,399 68,034 61,185 81,421 107,771 76,043 101,192 133,942 40,170 54,483 73,476 63,633 86,306 116,393 79,085 107,264 144,657 41,777 57,752 79,354 66,178 91,484 125,704 82,248 113,700 156,230 43,448 61,217 85,703 68,825 96,973 135,761 85,538 120,522 168,728
Future Cost of First Year of Higher Education if Costs Increase 4%, 6%, or 8% Per Year.

an excellent student and expects to be receive scholarships or other financial aid each year to cover part of his tuition expense. Consulting Figure A.1.1 and assuming 6 percent college cost increases, Holly and Gary find that the annual total cost of one year at a four-year public university will be approximately $27,000 four years from now. Figure A.1.2 Education Funding Worksheet shows the calculation they make to estimate the amount they need to save. To estimate the costs for four years, we’ll use the simplifying assumption that the Johnson’s college investment account will be able to earn the same rate of return as the rate of inflation they’ll experience for the four years Jake is in school. Whenever you’re calculating the present value of a series of cash flows that are increasing at the same rate as the rate you’re discounting at, the present value of the series of cash flows is simply the initial value times the number of periods. If your investment earnings are greater than the increase
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Figure A.1.2

Use these steps to solve for the monthly payment using a financial calculator Step 1. Estimate total college costs Use Figure A.1.1 to estimate the annual costs for one year of college. 27,000 Total costs = Annual cost x 4 x4= 108,000 Step 2. Subtract other sources of funding Grants, scholarships, tax savings 30,000 Child’s own savings or employment income 20,000 Support from other family 20,000 Future value of current savings 6000 Total from other sources 76,000 Step 3. College fund needed (Step 1 - Step 2) 32,000 Step 4. Calculate monthly savings needed 32,000 FV = College fund needed (Step 3) N = Number of months to save =4 x 12 =6/12 I = After-tax % monthly return on investment Solve for PMT $751.52
Education Funding Worksheet

in college costs, this method will overestimate how much you need (and lower investment earnings means you’d need to save more). Multiplying the $27,000 first-year cost by 4 gives a total of $108,000 for the four years of college. After taking into consideration other sources of funding, the Johnsons find that they will need to fund approximately $32,000.
Education Funding Plan

With only 4 years in which to save for this expenditure, they would need to save $751 per month to reach that goal before Jake goes to college. They estimate the monthly payment using a financial calculator. They enter the target college funding goal (FV = $27,000), the number of months until Jake goes to college (N = 4 12 = 48), and the monthly interest rate they expect to earn on their investments (I = 6/12), and then solve for the PMT. The result is $751.52. Basesd on their finances, the Johnsons doubt that they will be able to meet this goal. However, they plan to save as much as they can and then borrow the rest when it is needed.
Government Programs To Help Fund Education Expenses

As with retirement, there are state and federal programs that include tax incentives designed to encourage saving for educational expenses. These incentives fall into the general categories of tax-preferred savings plans and tax credits.
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Tax-Preferred Savings Plans. Both the federal government and state governments offer methods for tax-preferred education saving. Three of the most important of these are summarized in Figure A.1.3 Key Features of College Savings Plan Programs. For example, the federal government has authorized Coverdell Education Savings Accounts, previously called Education IRAs. The tax treatment of these accounts is similar to that of Roth IRAs—contributions are made with after-tax dollars, but interest earnings aren’t taxed, and no taxes are due when the funds are withdrawn. You can contribute up to $2,000 per year per child to a Coverdell. As an alternative, you can participate in a Section 529 plan offered by one of the states. This can be either a prepaid tuition plan or savings plan. Both types of plans require after-tax contributions, although some states allow state residents to deduct the contribution from income in calculating state taxes owed. The prepaid tuition plans enable you to pay in advance for college costs at state universities either by paying a lump sum or making a series of payments. The amount you pay is based on assumed future increases in tuition. For example, your state’s plan might allow you to effectively buy your child’s tuition at today’s price. The plan then invests those dollars so that the value of the tuition promise you bought will be able to increase with the tuition inflation rate. Theoretically, by the time your child goes to school, it will be worth one year’s tuition at the then applicable price. Originally, the amount was guaranteed, but greaterthan-expected tuition increases in the last few years have forced many of these plans to limit their guarantees to some maximum annual increase per year (e.g., up to 5% per year). When your child reaches college age, you can request reimbursement from the prepaid tuition plan for qualified education expenses (which include room, board, tuition, and books), and you won’t owe any taxes on the amount received. Although rules may vary from state to state, most plans are open to residents of any state, and many now allow the transfer of tuition credits to institutions outside of the state. So if your child decides that she doesn’t want to go to “State U,” you can apply the funds to the costs of an out-of-state or private university. Of course, the amount you’ve invested to fund in-state tuition will probably fund only a small portion of the costs at an out-of-state or private institution. In contrast to Section 529 prepaid tuition plans, Section 529 savings plans are more similar to IRAs—you choose how much to invest, and you may be able to allocate your money to investment vehicles that differ in risk and return. The amount you accumulate in your account will depend on how your investments do over time. As with the tuition plans, you can apply the money to any qualified education expenses. Some of the important questions you should consider before deciding on college funding options include limits on contributions to the various types of plans, transferability of accounts, and the effect on your child’s eligibility for
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Figure A.1.3

Section 529 Prepaid Tuition Plan
Available from Contribution limit Taxation of contributions Income limits States Depends on plan and age of student; up to $11,000 per year free of gift tax. May be exempt from state income tax. Most plans have none.

Section 529 Savings Plan
States Depends on plan; up to $11,000 per year free of gift tax. May be exempt from state income tax. Most plans have none.

Coverdell Education Savings Account
Financial institutions $2,000 per child per year; no contribution in same year as 529 saving plan. Taxable AGI maximum; $95,000 for singles, $220,000 for married coupk filing jointly. No tax on growth or withdrawals. All education Costs, including elementary, secondary, and higher education; tuition, fees, room, boord, and books. Can transfer to different fund or to 529 plan. Can still take the credit if withdrawal used for different epenses. Considered assct of the student so will reduce eligibility. Student at age 18. Age 30. By account owner Can assign to an immediate family member. Income tax plus 10% penalty.

Tax benefits Qualified expenses

No tax on growth or withdrawals. Most allow use for all higher education; tuition,fees, room, board, and books. A few limit to tuition and fees. Depends on plan. Can still take the credit if withdrawal used for different expenses. Considered asset of the student so will reduce eligibility. Contributor Depends on plan. By plan administrators Can assign to an immediate family member. Income tax plus 10% penalty.

No tax on growth or withdrawals. All higher education Costs; tuition, fees, room, board, and books.

Transferability Effect on eligibility for tax credits Effect on eligibility for financial aid Account control How long to use funds? Investment Assignability

Can transfer to different 529 plan. Can still take the credit if withdrawal used for different expenses. Considered asset of the contributor so may reduce eligibilityto some extent. Contributor Depends on plan. Choice of mutual funds Can assign to an immediate family member. Income tax plus 10% penalty.

Penalty for nonqualified

withdrawal
Key Features of College Savings Plan Programs
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financial aid. Some of the account choices described above will technically be considered an asset of your child, which means that contributions to the account will be treated as gifts that are subject to gift tax if they exceed the annual limit. Since the accumulated funds belong to your child, he or she is less likely to qualify for financial aid. Finally, you need to think about what will happen if your child decides not to go to college. With Coverdell accounts, your child has control over the account when he or she reaches age 18, whereas Section 529 plans leave control with the contributor. Tax Credits for Education. There are two tax credits that you might be able to use to help defray education expenses, although you can only use one for the same qualifying dependent. The American Opportunity tax credit can be claimed on your federal income taxes for up to $2,500 per year of eligible college expenses (100% of the first $2,000 of expenses and 50% of the next $2,000) for each child for the first four years of post-secondary education in a degree program. This credit has adjusted gross income limitations ($90,000 for single, $180,000 for married couples.) The Lifetime Learning tax credit allows you to claim 20 percent of the first $10,000 of education expenses, including graduate school, up to a maximum of $2,000 for every eligible dependent who has incurred these expenses during the year. There is no limit on the number of years that you can claim this credit. The income limitations for this credit are $60,000 for singles and $120,000 for married couples.
Tax Deductions for Higher Education Expenses

If your adjusted gross income is less than $75,000 ($150,000 married), you can deduct student loan interest from taxable income up to a maximum of $2,500, even if you do not itemize deductions. Tuition and fees paid for yourself, your spouse, or a dependent can also be deducted. The deduction is $4,000 if your income is lower than $65,000 ($130,000 married) and $2,000 if your income is less than $80,000 ($160,000 married). You cannot take this deduction if you have claimed either of the tax credits discussed in the previous section. For more information on the tax rules overviewed in this section, see www.irs.gov, Publication 970.

KEY TERMS
American Opportunity tax Credit A tax credit of up to $2,500 per year for eligible expenses incurred during the first four years of college.

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Coverdell Education Savings Accounts Lifetime Learning tax Credit

Section 529 plans

Education savings arrangement which allows after-tax contributions of $2,000 per year per child and tax-free withdrawals. A tax credit of 20 percent of the irst $10,000 of college expenses up to a maximum of $2,000 for every eligible dependent who has incurred these expenses during the year. State-sponsored programs that provide tax benefits for college saving.

Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.