...concentration decreases as blood nears the lungs, which in return causes and increase in pH . Increased pH causes increased affinity for oxygen which causes the hemoglobin to pick up oxygen entering your blood to be transported to the body’s tissue. Hemoglobin loses hydrogen ions from specific amino acids at key sites as pH rises causing slight changes in its structure that increase its ability to bind oxygen. As pH falls hemoglobin picks up hydrogen ions and its affinity for oxygen decreases. Increasing carbon dioxide concentration in your tissues cause a decrease in pH, which in turn forces hemoglobin to dump the oxygen it's carrying so your cells can use it for energy . a. 3. B. 1. 2. 3. Diseased cells have lower than normal ability to transport oxygen. Sickle cell hemoglobin is stiff and sticky. They stick together and do not flow through vessels easily causing blockages. The blockages caused by sickle cells affect oxygen being transported to tissues in the body. 4. a. Sickle cell disease is an inherited condition. People who receive the sickle cell gene from only parent have sickle cell trait which normally causes no health issues. People who receive the sickle cell gene from both parents have sickle cell disease. b. References Hudon-Miller, S. (2012) Oxygenated...
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...BIOCHEMISTRY TASK 2 Running head: BIOCHEMISTRY TASK 2 1 A. BIOCHEMISTRY TASK 2 2 B. BIOCHEMISTRY TASK 2 3 C. BIOCHEMISTRY TASK 2 4 D. BIOCHEMISTRY TASK 2 5 E. The four forces that stabilize a protein’s structure at the tertiary level are as followed: Hydrophobic is the interaction between nonpolar amino acids (Borges, 2014). These amino acids are not capable of hydrogen bonding, however their hydrocarbon regions interact closely by pulling together tightly tucking away from the exterior of the cell (Borges, 2014). This is the weakest of bonds (Borges, 2014). Next, Hydrogen bonds are polar or charged amino acids (Borges, 2014). This is where one amino acid is sharing its hydrogen atom with another oxygen atom (Borges, 2014). This is a stronger bond than hydrophobic interaction but still weak (Borges, 2014). The third bond is called Ionic Bond...
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...BIOCHEMISTRY TASK 4 Western Governors University September 14, 2015 Running head: BIOCHEMISTRY TASK 4 1 A1. Enzymes increase the rate of a chemical reaction without being altered in the process of the reaction (HudonMiller, 2013). Enzymes also lower activation energy without altering the chemical reaction or products (HudonMiller, 2013). A2. BIOCHEMISTRY TASK 4 2 A3. A4. Fructose metabolism has two steps different steps in the liver, the substrate of fructose breaks down to fructose1phosphate by an enzyme called fructokinase; fructose1phosphate is turned into DHAP + glyceraldehyde by an enzyme known as aldolase B, DHAP +glyceraldehyde BIOCHEMISTRY TASK 4 3 A4 continue then enters glycolysis, glycolysis turns into pyruvate goes through citric acid cycle and produces ATP (HudonMiller, 2013). BIOCHEMISTRY TASK 4 5 A5. In hereditary fructose intolerance there is an aldolase B (which is the enzyme for the substrate fructose1phosphate) can no longer take its substrate fructose1phosphate and turn it ...
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...Leila Halaby Biochemistry 208.5.1 09/11/14 The Process of DNA Replication Western Governors University The Process Of DNA Replication The process of DNA replication at the biochemistry level starts with DNA to RNA and RNA to protein. DNA is “The Master” molecule of every cell. It contains vital information that is passed onto every generation. It has information on how to make itself as well as other molecules. DNA is the key to life. RNA leaves the nucleus of the cell and makes proteins. (Sally Seller December 2013) http:/ /www.cytochemistry.net/cell-biology/ ribosome.htm The process by which both strands are replicated starts with the strands being separated and unwound by DNA Helicase. DNA polymerases, an enzymes which catalyze the synthesis of new complementary strands will add nucleotides to the 3’ end of the growing nucleotide strand. An RNA primer is needed to start the synthesis of a new strand to make the first 3’ end the enzyme needs. After that, the RNA is taken out and replace with DNA. The synthesis of both complementary strands start in the 5’ to 3’ direction. The leading strand will then grow continuously in the direction of the replication fork. On the leading strand, RNA primase comes in and add RNA primer. ! ! (thinkwell biochemistry 6.4.2) Newly synthesized DNA The lagging strand will point away from the opening of the fork. RNA primase will constantly add RNA primer as the strand opens up On the leading strand, DNA polymerase III...
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...Biochemistry Task Two Sarah Taylor 000504232 9/11/2015 Task 2: Protein Structure Introduction: Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), also known as mad cow disease, is a worldwide problem. While the United States and many countries in the European Union have regulatory legislation in place to combat the spread of BSE, many other countries do not yet have the ability to enact such regulations, making the import and use of possibly tainted beef a health risk. You should compile your work for this task in a single document (e.g., Microsoft Word, Google Document) that will include diagrams, models, text explanations, and references. If a requirement asks for an explanation, you should provide a written response in a narrative style (i.e., complete sentences rather than bullet points). Note: Multimedia presentations (e.g., PowerPoint, Keynote) will not be accepted due to potential originality concerns. Note: Please save submission documents as *.doc, *.docx, *.rtf, or *.pdf files. If you are using Google Documents, you must save the file in *.pdf format and upload the *.pdf file. Scenario: As a specialist in biochemistry, you have been asked to be part of a team that will assist a country that currently does not have regulatory legislation. You will help the other workers in understanding BSE at a chemical level. Because these workers are unfamiliar with the basic biochemistry concepts necessary...
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...Biochemistry Task 4 GRT1 208.5.4-01, 03-05, 5.5-02, 04-07 Western Governors University Biochemistry Task 4 GRT1 208.5.4-01, 03-05, 5.5-02, 04-07 A. Case 1: Hereditary Fructose Intolerance A1. Role of Enzymes in Processes Enzymes are proteins that carry out chemical reactions. They bind to substrates, which are basically substances that need to be broken down and changed into something else. When the enzyme and substrate bind, they form the enzyme-substrate complex. An enzyme will act in a specific way on the substrate that it is bound to in order to change it into a product, and at the end of the process, the enzyme is unchanged and ready to bind to the next substrate. An enzyme acts as a catalyst, something that lowers the energy required to complete a chemical reaction (activation energy) without itself being changed. (Hudon-Miller, 2012) In the case of fructose breakdown, an enzyme called fructokinase is responsible for splitting fructose into fructose 1-phosphate, a six-carbon fructose. Another enzyme called aldolase B splits fructose 1-phosphate into two three-carbon molecules, dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde. These products are then able to enter the glycolysis pathway to be converted to pyruvate, which is essential for the citric acid cycle and the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for cellular energy. A2. Deficiency in Aldolase B A hereditary deficiency in aldolase B could be caused by mutations in the ALDOB gene. An aldolase...
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...Biochemistry Task 5- Lipids Student ID# Western Governors University 05/21/2015 Biochemistry Task 5- Lipids A. Fat is stored in the body and used as an energy source when not enough energy is available from food. This process involves dismantling the stored fat in fat cells and releasing the components into the bloodstream. The major storage form of fats in our body are triglycerides, which are made up of three fatty acids bound to glycerol. Adipocytes are primary cells that store fat in the triglyceride form. White adipose cells are used to store energy (O’Malley, M. 2014). 1. Triglycerides are the storage molecules that are broken down and used to produce ATP. The triglycerides break down into two different items, glycerol and fatty acids. The triglycerides are formed when glycerol binds to three fatty acid molecules. The fatty acids each break down into 2 carbon parts. Each part of the carbon makes Acetyl CoA. The Acetyl CoA molecule then enters the Citric Acid Cycle before it moves on to the next step, the electron transport chain. The end result of each of these steps is the production of 12 ATP (Hudon-Miller, 2012). B. 1. Saturated fats do not contain a carbon-carbon double bond. Unsaturated fats contain at least on carbon-carbon double bond. The saturated fatty acid chains can stack while the unsaturated fatty acid chains are kinked by the double bond. 2. Saturated fats have a high melting point and are solid at room temperature...
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.... Biochemistry Task 4 GRT1 208.5.4-01, 03-05, 5.5-02, 04-07 Western Governors University Biochemistry Task 4 GRT1 208.5.4-01, 03-05, 5.5-02, 04-07 A. Case 1: Hereditary Fructose Intolerance A1. Role of Enzymes in Processes Enzymes are proteins that carry out chemical reactions. They bind to substrates, which are basically substances that need to be broken down and changed into something else. When the enzyme and substrate bind, they form the enzyme-substrate complex. An enzyme will act in a specific way on the substrate that it is bound to in order to change it into a product, and at the end of the process, the enzyme is unchanged and ready to bind to the next substrate. An enzyme acts as a catalyst, something that lowers the energy required to complete a chemical reaction (activation energy) without itself being changed. (Hudon-Miller, 2012) In the case of fructose breakdown, an enzyme called fructokinase is responsible for splitting fructose into fructose 1-phosphate, a six-carbon fructose. Another enzyme called aldolase B splits fructose 1-phosphate into two three-carbon molecules, dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde. These products are then able to enter the glycolysis pathway to be converted to pyruvate, which is essential for the citric acid cycle and the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for cellular energy. A2. Deficiency in Aldolase B A hereditary deficiency in aldolase B could be caused by mutations in the ALDOB gene. An...
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...This document is designed to help you organize your task as you work through the cohort. Please make a copy of this document, which will then appear in your Google Drive. (See below.) If you would like a tutorial on using Google Drive, please click here. Then insert your work into the copied document as instructed. We recommend you do your work in black, and delete all of the blue text prior to submitting your task. When your document is ready to go, save it as a PDF. You can upload this PDF to Taskstream and submit! Protein Structure A. Insert your original model of an essential amino acid that shows all atoms and bonds in both the backbone and the side chain. Click here to learn how to insert images into a Google Document. (Insert in-text citation here). 1 Characteristics of Leucine: Hydrophobic Oxygenation Insert your description of two characteristics (e.g., reactivity, hydrophobicity, how it affects the structure or functions of a protein) for the amino acid model you created in part A. (Insert in-text citation here). B. Insert your original diagram, or series of original diagrams, of the different levels of protein structure. 1. Check to see that you labeled the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures in your diagram(s). Primary Secondary Tertiary quaterrnary (Insert in-text citation here). C. Insert your original diagram, or series...
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...Biochemistry Task 2 Ashlyn Verrecchio 000502421 October 13, 2015 Requirements: A. B. C/D. E. F. Explain how bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) occurs at a molecular level by doing the following: 1. Explain the role of prions in BSE, including each of the following: ● how prions are formed – Prions are an abnormal form of a normally harmless protein that is found in the brain and responsible for a variety of fatal neurodegenerative disease. ● the connection between misfolding and aggregation – When a protein begins misfolding it can lead to the protein aggregating, or better known as accumulating and clumping together, which can often be toxic. ● how prions lead to the disease – Prions can be found in the food in which cows eat (specifically sheep brain), when ingested, the harmful prion eventually can cause other normal proteins to begin misfolding and aggregating and than turn into harmful prions; this can take a long period of time, which leads to the build-up of these prions which eventually can lead to neurodegeneration. 2. Explain one possible role of a chaperone protein in BSE, including each of the following: ● how chaperones normally act in the cell – they assist proteins to correctly fold/assemble inside the cell ● how a chaperone protein can contribute to BSE – a defect in molecular chaperone interactions may lead to further progression of the disease instead of correction of the misfolding 3. Recommend two ways...
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...Nancy Bosch Task 2 Student #000514178 Task 2: Protein Structure A. ("Amino Acids") B. (Rafael) (Wolfe) (Rafael) C. (Wolfe) D. (Wolfe) E. Explain the four forces (i.e., bonds or interactions) that stabilize a protein’s structure at the tertiary level. Hydrophobic interactions- R group in the amino acid is non-polar and therefore will avoid contact with water by joining together in the interior of the molecule, it will avoid contact with water. Van der Waals- this interaction occurs when the hydrophobic R groups that are packed together have a weak attraction that helps to reinforce the hydrophobic bond. Ionic bonding- The R group must have a charge. In this case the opposites attract (positive to negative/ negative to positive) forming a very strong bond.Disulfide bridges- These bonds are formed with the help of cysteine. One of the sulfur atoms from cysteine forms a single covalent bond with a second sulfur atom from another cycsteine located in the protein chain. (Wolfe) F. Explain how bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) occurs at a molecular level by doing the following: 1. Explain the role of prions in BSE, including each of the following: ● how prions are formed A prion is a protein that causes infection. They are formed when a mutation occurs. A normal prion protein called PrPc is found in our neurons in our brains. This normal protein gets altered and becomes a PrPsc protein which then binds to another normal PrPc...
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...GRT task 2: Biochemistry (V. Undergrad-0814) Proteins are made up of smaller units called amino acids. Hundreds or thousands of amino acids in long chains form a protein molecule. There are 20 different types of amino acids that combine to make a protein. Amino acids are classified into three groups: essential amino acids, non-essential amino acids, and conditional amino acids. Essential amino acids cannot be made by the body and must come from food. Non-essential amino acids can be produced by the body even if not obtained through food ingested (Wolfe,2000). Conditional amino acids are needed at times of stress, like an illness. Proteins can be described as polar and non-polar depending on how they interact in the environment. Polar and non-polar chemical trait allows for the amino acid to direct themselves toward water (hydrophilic) or away from water (hydrophobic). Valine is an essential amino acid that enables chemical messages to be transmitted from the brain. Valine’s chemical structure is C5H11NO2 and is a branched chain amino acid. Valine is non-polar in nature so it is not a charged molecule. Valine is hydrophobic and if found deep inside the structure for this reason. Valine is important to muscle function as the muscle recovers from strenuous activity. The amino acids sequencing of a protein decides its structure and function. Protein function is also dependent on its structure but some changes can disrupt the structure. When a protein loses function it...
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...Task 4 Western Governors University Biochemistry C624 November 9, 2015 A1. Describe two important features that make all enzymes catalysts. An enzyme is a protein that serves as catalysts of biological reactions converting a substrate into a product. The catalyst can increase the rate of the reaction. A catalyst does not change, or get consumed, during the reaction. A2. Create an original diagram, or series of diagrams with clear labels depicting the enzymatic cycle (lock and key or induced fit model). A3. Create a diagram that illustrates the aE of a reaction in the presence and absence of an enzyme. A4. Explain the reactions catalyzed by enzymes in the first two steps of fructose metabolism in the liver. Fructose in the blood passes through the cell membrane into the liver cell and initiates phosphoralation with fructokinase for the metabolism of fructose. The fructokinase then uses the phosphate and produces F-1-P (fructose 1 phosphate). F-1-P is the substrate for the enzyme Aldolase B. Aldolase B takes the F-1-P and makes DHAP and glyceraldehyde, the products of Aldolase B. The DHAP and glyceraldehyde are intermediates in glycolysis and continue down to make pyruvate which then can make ATP synthesis or fatty acids. (Sanders, J. 2013) A5. Discuss how a deficiency in aldolase B is responsible for HFI. Hereditary Fructose Intolerance (HFI) results from a deficiency of aldolase B activity primarily in the liver, but also in the kidneys and small intestine...
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...Task 5: Lipids A. Fatty acids come from various sources within the body. The three primary fat sources are adipose tissue (which is where fat is stored), the liver from glycolysis and fats from the food we eat. Fats are stored in the form of lipids. This covers a multitude of compounds also including hormones and other substances that tend to be hydrophobic. Triglycerides are a type of lipid composed of three bonds between a glycerol and three fatty acids (these can be saturated or unsaturated). When triglycerides are broken down they are first simplified to the singular glycerol and three independent fatty acids. The fatty acids then enter beta-oxidation where they are further broken down into acetyl-CoA which consists of two carbon and one oxygen molecule, amongst other molecules. Acetyl-CoA then enters the citric acid cycle where it generates ATP. ATP production happens during electron transport phosphorylation where NADH and FADH2 from TCA pump hydrogen protons to the intermembrane space then they follow the proton gradient back into the mitochondrial matrix through ATP synthase generating ATP from ADP B. Two key differences between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids are the chemical structure as well as shape. All fatty acids maintain four bonds to all carbon atoms. Saturated fats are “saturated” with hydrogen atoms, these tend to come from animal sources but also include cheese and the occasional plant source such as coconut. Each carbon atom has a hydrogen or...
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...Biochemistry Task 3 Sandy Palma 457307 October 26, 2015 A. 1. Explain differences between the oxygenated and deoxygenated states of two hemoglobin. With Oxygenated blood the heme has a plantar shape as for Deoxygenated the heme is domed, cooperativity causes the shape. Another difference is color. Heme is bright red when bound to oxygen, as for deoxygentaed blood the heme is purple to bluish in color. 2. Explain how pH impacts the binding and release of oxygen by hemoglobin CO2 in the blood creates a decrease in pH, this causes the hemoglobin to release their oxygen molecules. A decrease in CO2 causes the pH to increase, which causes the hemoglobin to pick more oxygen molecules. A. 3. Hudon-Miller, S. (2012) HudonMiller, S. (2012) 1. 2. 3. Explain how diseased cells differ from normal red blood cells in their capacity to transport oxygen. They differ by its shape. Normal red blood cells are concave disk shape. The diseased cell has a sickled shape. The sickled shape causes the cells to get stuck in the blood vessels, thus preventing them from bringing oxygen to other parts of the body. 4. a. Identify the type of inheritance seen in sickle cell anemia. The trait is inherited when hemoglobin S is obtained from one parent with the trait and a normal hemoglobin parent. Sickle cell disease is inherited when both parents have the trait or the disease . b. SOURCES...
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