Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates: Good Carbs Guide the Way
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Top of Form
What Are Carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates are found in a wide array of foods—bread, beans, milk, popcorn, potatoes, cookies, spaghetti, soft drinks, corn, and cherry pie. They also come in a variety of forms. The most common and abundant forms are sugars, fibers, and starches.
The basic building block of every carbohydrate is a sugar molecule, a simple union of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Starches and fibers are essentially chains of sugar molecules. Some contain hundreds of sugars. Some chains are straight, others branch wildly.
Carbohydrates were once grouped into two main categories. Simple carbohydrates included sugars such as fruit sugar (fructose), corn or grape sugar (dextrose or glucose), and table sugar (sucrose). Complex carbohydrates included everything made of three or more linked sugars. Complex carbohydrates were thought to be the healthiest to eat, while simple carbohydrates weren’t so great. It turns out that the picture is more complicated than that.
The digestive system handles all carbohydrates in much the same way—it breaks them down (or tries to break them down) into single sugar molecules, since only these are small enough to cross into the bloodstream. It also converts most digestible carbohydrates into glucose (also known as blood sugar), because cells are designed to use this as a universal energy source.
Fiber is an exception. It is put together in such a way that it can’t be broken down into sugar molecules, and so it passes through the body undigested. Fiber comes in two varieties: soluble fiber dissolves in water, while insoluble fiber does not. Although neither type nourishes the body, they promote health in many ways. Soluble fiber binds to fatty substances in the intestines and carries them out as a waste, thus lowering low-density lipoprotein (LDL, or bad cholesterol). It also helps regulate the body’s use of sugars, helping to keep hunger and blood sugar in check. Insoluble fiber helps push food through the intestinal tract, promoting regularity and helping prevent constipation. Adults need at least 20 to 30 grams of fiber per day for good health. But most Americans get only about 15 grams a day. Learn how fiber helps protect against disease.
When Sugar Management Goes Awry: Insulin and Diabetes
When you eat a food containing carbohydrates, the digestive system breaks down the digestible ones into sugar, which then enters the blood. As blood sugar levels rise, special cells in the pancreas churn out more and more insulin, a hormone that signals cells to absorb blood sugar for energy or storage. As cells sponge up blood sugar, its levels in the bloodstream begin to fall. That’s when other cells in the pancreas start making glucagon, a hormone that tells the liver to start releasing stored sugar. This interplay of insulin and glucagon ensure that cells throughout the body, and especially in the brain, have a steady supply of blood sugar.
In some people, this cycle doesn’t work properly. People with type 1 diabetes (once called insulin-dependent or juvenile diabetes) don’t make enough insulin, so their cells can’t absorb sugar. People with type 2 diabetes (once called non-insulin-dependent, or adult-onset diabetes) generally start out with a different problem—their cells don’t respond well to insulin’s “open up for sugar” signal. This condition, known as insulin resistance, causes blood sugar and insulin levels to stay high long after eating. Over time, the heavy demands made on the insulin-making cells wears them out, and insulin production slows, then stops.
Insulin resistance isn’t just a blood sugar problem. It has also been linked with a variety of other problems, including high blood pressure, high levels of triglycerides, low HDL (good) cholesterol, and excess weight. In fact, it travels with these problems so often that the combination has been given the name metabolic syndrome. (1) Alone and as part of the metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance can lead to type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and possibly some cancers.
Genes, a sedentary lifestyle, being overweight, and a diet rich in processed carbohydrates can each promote insulin resistance. (The combination is far worse.) Data from the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study suggests that cutting back on refined grains and eating more whole grains in their place can improve insulin sensitivity. (2) As described in “Health Gains from Whole Grains“, the benefit of eating whole grains extends far beyond insulin to helping prevent type 2 diabetes, atherosclerosis (the build-up of cholesterol-filled patches that clog and narrow artery walls), heart disease, colorectal cancer, and premature death from noncardiac, noncancer causes.
Researchers estimate that 90 percent of type 2 diabetes cases could be prevented through a combination of a healthy diet and an active lifestyle. Learn how to lower your risk of diabetes.
Carbohydrates and the Glycemic Index Dividing carbohydrates into simple and complex makes sense on a chemical level. But it doesn’t do much to explain what happens to different kinds of carbohydrates inside the body. For example, the starch in white bread and French-fried potatoes clearly qualifies as a complex carbohydrate. Yet the body converts this starch to blood sugar nearly as fast as it processes pure glucose. Fructose (fruit sugar) is a simple carbohydrate, but it has a minimal effect on blood sugar.
A new system, called the glycemic index, aims to classify carbohydrates based on how quickly and how high they boost blood sugar compared to pure glucose.(3) Foods with a high glycemic index, like white bread, cause rapid spikes in blood sugar. Foods with a low glycemic index, like whole oats, are digested more slowly, causing a lower and gentler change in blood sugar. Foods with a score of 70 or higher are defined as having a high glycemic index; those with a score of 55 or below have a low glycemic index.
Nutrition In Depth
Glycemic Index
Many factors can affect a food’s glycemic index, including the following: * Processing: Grains that have been milled and refined—removing the bran and the germ—have a higher glycemic index than whole grains. * Type of starch. Starch comes in many different configurations. Some are easier to break into sugar molecules than others. The starch in potatoes, for example, is digested and absorbed into the bloodstream relatively quickly. * Fiber content. The sugars in fiber are linked in ways that the body has trouble breaking. The more fiber a food has, the less digestible carbohydrate, and so the less sugar it can deliver. * Ripeness. Ripe fruits and vegetables tend to have more sugar than unripe ones, and so tend to have a higher glycemic index. * Fat content and acid content. The more fat or acid a food or meal contains, the slower its carbohydrates are converted to sugar and absorbed into the bloodstream. * Physical form. Finely ground grain is more rapidly digested, and so has a higher glycemic index, than more coarsely ground grain.
View a list of low-, medium-, and high-glycemic-load foods.
The most comprehensive list of the glycemic index of foods was published in the July 2002, issue of theAmerican Journal of Clinical Nutrition. (4) It included almost 750 foods, ranging from angel food cake to yams. The University of Sydney in Australia maintains an updated searchable database atwww.glycemicindex.com that now has almost 1,600 entries.
Diets rich in high-glycemic-index foods, which cause quick and strong increases in blood sugar levels, have been linked to an increased risk for diabetes, (5) heart disease, (6, 7) and overweight, (8, 9,10) and there is preliminary work linking high-glycemic diets to age-related macular degeneration, (11) ovulatory infertility, (12) and colorectal cancer. (13) Foods with a low glycemic index have been shown to help control type 2 diabetes and improve weight loss. Other studies, though, have found that the glycemic index has little effect on weight or health. This sort of flip-flop is part of the normal process of science, and it means that the true value of the glycemic index remains to be determined. In the meantime, eating whole grains, beans, fruits, and vegetables—all foods with a low glycemic index—is indisputably good for many aspects of health.
One of the most important factors that determine a food’s glycemic index is how much it has been processed. Milling and grinding removes the fiber-rich outer bran and the vitamin- and mineral-rich inner germ, leaving mostly the starchy endosperm. (See the sidebar, Nutrition In-Depth, for more information on what affects a food’s glycemic index.)
One thing that a food’s glycemic index does not tell us is how much digestible carbohydrate it delivers. Take watermelon as an example. The sweet-tasting fruit has a very high glycemic index. But a slice of watermelon has only a small amount of carbohydrate per serving (as the name suggests, watermelon is made up mostly of water). That’s why researchers developed a related way to classify foods that takes into account both the amount of carbohydrate in the food and the impact of that carbohydrate on blood sugar levels. This measure is called the glycemic load. (14, 15) A food’s glycemic load is determined by multiplying its glycemic index by the amount of carbohydrate it contains. In general, a glycemic load of 20 or more is high, 11 to 19 is medium, and 10 or under is low.
You can’t use the glycemic index to rule your dietary choices. For example, a Snickers bar has a glycemic index of 41, marking it as a low glycemic index food. But it is far from a health food. Instead, use it as a general guide. Whenever possible, replace highly processed grains, cereals, and sugars with minimally processed whole grain products. And only eat potatoes—once on the list of preferred complex carbohydrates—occasionally because of their high glycemic index and glycemic load.
Low-Carbohydrate Diets: Choose Good Carbs, not No Carbs
Some popular diets treat carbohydrates as if they are evil, the root of all body fat and excess weight. That was certainly true for the original Atkins diet, which popularized the no-carb approach to dieting. And there is some evidence that a low-carbohydrate diet may help people lose weight more quickly than a low-fat diet, although so far, that evidence is short term.
In two short, head-to-head trials, (16, 17) low-carb approaches worked better than low-fat diets. A later year-long study, published in 2007 in the Journal of the American Medical Association, showed the same thing. In this study, overweight, premenopausal women went on one of four diets: Atkins, Zone, Ornish, or LEARN, a standard low-fat, moderately high-carbohydrate diet. The women in all four groups steadily lost weight for the first six months, with the most rapid weight loss occurring among the Atkins dieters. After that, most of the women started to regain weight. At the end of a year, it looked as though the women in the Atkins group had lost the most weight, about 10 pounds, compared with a loss of almost 6 pounds for the LEARN group, 5 for the Ornish group, and 3.5 for the Zone group. (18) Levels of harmful LDL, protective HDL, and other blood lipids were at least as good among women on the Atkins diet as among those on the low-fat diet.
If you read the fine print of the study, though, it turns out that few of the women actually stuck with their assigned diets. Those on the Atkins diet were supposed to limit their carbohydrate intake to 50 grams a day, but they took in almost triple that amount. The Ornish dieters were supposed to limit their fat intake to under 10 percent of their daily calories, but they got about 30 percent from fat. There were similar deviations for the Zone and LEARN groups.
What about longer term studies? POUNDS LOST (Preventing Overweight Using Novel Dietary Strategies), a two-year head-to-head trial comparing different weight loss strategies found that low-carb, low-fat, and Mediterranean-style diets worked equally well in the long run, and that there was no speed advantage for one diet over another. (20) What this and other diet comparisons tell us is that sticking with a diet is more important than the diet itself. (Read more about the POUNDS LOST weight loss trial.)
No one knows the long-term effects of eating little or no carbohydrates. Equally worrisome is the inclusion of unhealthy fats in some of these diets.
If you want to go the lower carb route, try to include some fruits, vegetables, and whole grains every day. They contain a host of vitamins, minerals, and phytonutrients that are essential for good health and that you can’t get out of a supplement bottle. And do your heart a favor by choosing healthy fats and proteins to go along with those healthy sources of carbohydrate: A 20-year prospective study of 82,802 women looked at the relationship between lower carbohydrate diets and heart disease; a subsequent study looked at lower carbohydrate diets and risk of diabetes. Women who ate low-carbohydrate diets that were high in vegetable sources of fat or protein had a 30 percent lower risk of heart disease (7) and a modestly lower risk of type 2 diabetes, (19) compared to women who ate high-carbohydrate, low-fat diets. But women who ate low-carbohydrate diets that were high in animal fats or proteins did not have a reduced risk of heart disease or diabetes.(7, 19)
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Adding Good Carbohydrates
For optimal health, get your grains intact from foods such as whole wheat bread, brown rice, whole grain pasta, and other possibly unfamiliar grains like quinoa, whole oats, and bulgur. Not only will these foods help protect you against a range of chronic diseases, they can also please your palate and your eyes.
Until recently, you could only get whole-grain products in organic or non-traditional stores. Today they are popping up in more and more mainstream grocery stores. Here are some suggestions for adding more good carbohydrates to your diet: * Start the day with whole grains. If you’re partial to hot cereals, try steel-cut oats. If you’re a cold cereal person, look for one that lists whole wheat, whole oats, or other whole grain first on the ingredient list. * Use whole grain breads for lunch or snacks. Check the label to make sure that whole wheat or another whole grain is the first ingredient listed. * Bag the potatoes. Instead, try brown rice or even “newer” grains like bulgur, wheat berries, millet, or hulled barley with your dinner. * Pick up some whole wheat pasta. If the whole grain products are too chewy for you, look for those that are made with half whole-wheat flour and half white flour. * Bring on the beans. Beans are an excellent source of slowly digested carbohydrates as well as a great source of protein.

Understanding carbohydrates
Common sources of naturally occurring carbohydrates include: * Fruits * Vegetables * Milk * Nuts * Grains * Seeds * Legumes
Types of carbohydrates
There are three main types of carbohydrates: * Sugar. Sugar is the simplest forms of carbohydrates. Sugar occurs naturally in some foods, including fruits, vegetables, milk and milk products. Sugars include fruit sugar (fructose), table sugar (sucrose) and milk sugar (lactose). * Starch. Starch is made of sugar units bonded together. Starch occurs naturally in vegetables, grains, and cooked dry beans and peas. * Fiber. Fiber also is made of sugar units bonded together. Fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and cooked dry beans and peas are among foods that are naturally rich in fiber.
More carbohydrate terms: Net carbs and glycemic index
You may see terms such as "low carb" or "net carbs" on some products, or promoted by some diet programs. But the Food and Drug Administration doesn't regulate these terms, so there's no standard meaning. Net carbs is typically used to mean the amount of carbohydrates in a product excluding fiber or excluding both fiber and sugar alcohols.
You've probably also have heard talk about the glycemic index. The glycemic index classifies carbohydrate-containing foods according to their potential to raise your blood sugar level. Many healthy foods, such as whole grains, legumes, vegetables, fruits and low-fat dairy products, are naturally low on the glycemic index. Weight-loss diets based on the glycemic index typically restrict foods with a relatively high glycemic index ranking, such as potatoes and corn. However, there also are health benefits from these foods, so you don't necessarily have to eliminate them from your diet.
How many carbohydrates do you need?
The 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends that carbohydrates make up 45 to 65 percent of your total daily calories. So, if you get 2,000 calories a day, between 900 and 1,300 calories should be from carbohydrates. That translates to between 225 and 325 grams of carbohydrates a day.
You can find the carbohydrate content of packaged foods by reading the Nutrition Facts label. The Nutrition Facts label shows total carbohydrates, which includes starches, fiber, sugar alcohols, and naturally occurring and added sugars. It may also list total fiber, soluble fiber and sugar separately. You may also be able to find nutrient calculators online or find information on a manufacturer's website.
Providing energy
Your body uses carbohydrates as its main fuel source. Sugars and starches are broken down into simple sugars during digestion. They're then absorbed into your bloodstream, where they're known as blood sugar (glucose). From there, the glucose enters your body's cells with the help of insulin. Some of this glucose is used by your body for energy, fueling all of your activities, whether it's going for a jog or simply breathing. Extra glucose is stored in your liver, muscles and other cells for later use or is converted to fat.
Protecting against disease
Some evidence shows that whole grains and dietary fiber from whole foods helps reduce your risk of cardiovascular diseases. Fiber may also protect against obesity and type 2 diabetes. Fiber is also essential for optimal digestive health.
Controlling weight
Evidence shows that eating plenty of vegetables, fruits and whole grains can help you control your weight. Their bulk and fiber content aids weight control by helping you feel full on fewer calories. Contrary to what some weight-loss diets claim, very few studies show that a diet rich in healthy carbohydrates leads to weight gain or obesity.
Choosing carbohydrates wisely
Carbohydrates are an essential part of a healthy diet, and they also provide many important nutrients. Still, not all carbs are created equal. Here's how to make healthy carbohydrates work in a balanced diet: * Emphasize fiber-rich fruits and vegetables. Aim for whole fresh, frozen and canned fruits and vegetables without added sugar. They're better options than are fruit juices and dried fruits, which are concentrated sources of natural sugar and therefore have more calories. Also, whole fruits and vegetables add fiber, water and bulk, and help you feel fuller on fewer calories. * Choose whole grains. All types of grains are good sources of carbohydrates. They're also rich in vitamins and minerals and naturally low in fat. But whole grains are healthier choices than are refined grains. Whole grains are better sources of fiber and other important nutrients, such as selenium, potassium and magnesium. Refined grains go through a process that strips out certain parts of the grain — along with some of the nutrients and fiber. * Stick to low-fat dairy products. Milk, cheese, yogurt and other dairy products are good sources of calcium and protein, plus many other vitamins and minerals. Choose the low-fat versions, though, to help limit calories and saturated fat. And beware of dairy products that have added sugar. * Don't forget beans and legumes. Legumes — beans, peas and lentils — are among the most versatile and nutritious foods available. Legumes are typically low in fat, contain no cholesterol, and are high in folate, potassium, iron and magnesium. They also have beneficial fats, and soluble and insoluble fiber. Because they're a good source of protein, legumes can be a healthy substitute for meat, which has more saturated fat and cholesterol. * Limit added sugars. Added sugar probably isn't harmful in small amounts. But there's no health advantage to consuming any amount of added sugar. In fact, too much added sugar, and in some cases naturally occurring sugar, can lead to such health problems as tooth decay, poor nutrition and weight gain.
So choose your carbohydrates wisely. Limit foods with added sugars and refined grains, such as sugary drinks, desserts and candy, which are packed with calories but low in nutrition. Instead, go for whole grains and fruits and vegetables.
Carbohydrates: Quality Matters
What’s most important is the type of carbohydrate you chose to eat because some sources are healthier than others. The amount of carbohydrate in the diet – high or low – is less important than the type of carbohydrate in the diet. For example, healthy, whole grains such as whole wheat bread, rye, barley and quinoa are better choices than highly refined white bread or French fries. (1)
Many people are confused about carbohydrates, but keep in mind that it’s more important to eat carbohydrates from healthy foods than to follow a strict diet limiting or counting the number of grams of carbohydrates consumed.
What Are Carbohydrates?.
Foods high in carbohydrates are an important part of a healthy diet. Carbohydrates provide the body with glucose, which is converted to energy used to support bodily functions and physical activity. But carbohydrate quality is important; some types of carbohydrate-rich foods are better than others: * The healthiest sources of carbohydrates—unprocessed or minimally processed whole grains, vegetables, fruits and beans—promote good health by delivering vitamins, minerals, fiber, and a host of important phytonutrients. * Unhealthier sources of carbohydrates include white bread, pastries, sodas, and other highly processed or refined foods. These items contain easily digested carbohydrates that may contribute to weight gain, interfere with weight loss, and promote diabetes and heart disease.
HSPH’s Healthy Eating Plate recommends filling most of your plate with healthy carbohydrates – with vegetables (except potatoes) and fruits taking up about half of your plate, and whole grains filling up about one fourth of your plate.
Try these tips for adding healthy carbohydrates to your diet:
What are carbohydrates?
Your body uses carbohydrates (carbs) to make glucose which is the fuel that gives you energy and helps keep everything going.
Your body can use glucose immediately or store it in your liver and muscles for when it is needed.
You can find carbohydrates in the following: * Fruits * Vegetables * Breads, cereals, and other grains * Milk and milk productssugar-sweetened * Foods containing added sugars (e.g., cakes, cookies, and beverages).
Healthier foods higher in carbohydrates include ones that provide dietary fiber and whole grains as well as those without added sugars.

What about foods higher in carbohydrates such as sodas and candies that also contain added sugars? Those are the ones that add extra calories but not many nutrients to your diet. Dietary Fiber
You may have seen dietary fiber on the label listed as soluble fiber or insoluble fiber.
Soluble fiber is found in the following: * Oatmeal * Oat bran * Nuts and seeds * Most fruits (e.g., strawberries, blueberries, pears, and apples) * Dry beans and peas
Insoluble fiber found in the following: * Whole wheat bread * Barley * Brown rice * Couscous * Bulgur or whole grain cereals * Wheat bran * Seeds * Most vegetables * Fruits
Which type is best? Both! Each has important health benefits so eat a variety of these foods to get enough of both. You're also more likely to get other nutrients that you might miss if you just chose 1 or 2 high-fiber foods.
At first, you may find it challenging to eat all of your daily fiber grams. Just take it slowly and try to choose higher-fiber foods more often. Over time, you'll gradually be eating more fiber!
Whole Grains
Whole grains are a good source of fiber and nutrients. Whole grains refer to grains that have all of the parts of the grain seed (sometimes called the kernel). These parts of the kernel are called the bran, the germ, and the endosperm.

If the whole grain has been cracked, crushed, or flaked (as in cracked whole grain bread or flake cereal), then the whole grain must still have about the same proportions of bran, germ, and endosperm to be called a whole grain.1

When whole grains are processed, some of the dietary fiber and other important nutrients are removed. A processed grain is called a "refined" grain.

Some refined grain products have key nutrients, such as folic acid and iron, which were removed during the initial processing and added back. These are called enriched grains. White rice and white bread are enriched grain products.

Some enriched grain foods have extra nutrients added. These are called fortified grains.2
Whole Grain "Buzz Words"
*Popcorn is a whole grain that can have added fat and salt. Try air-popping your popcorn to avoid these extras. If you're buying microwave popcorn, look for a lower-fat variety. You may also want to try the snack size bag to help with portion control.
Simple Carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrates include sugars found naturally in foods such as fruits, vegetables milk, and milk products. Simple carbohydrates also include sugars added during food processing and refining.6 What's the difference? In general, foods with added sugars have fewer nutrients than foods with naturally-occurring sugars.

How can I avoid added sugars?
One way to avoid these sugars is to read the ingredient lists on food labels.

Look for these ingredients as added sugars:7 * Brown sugar * Corn sweetener * Corn syrup * Dextrose * Fructose * Fruit juice concentrates * Glucose * High-fructose corn syrup * Honey | * Invert sugar * Lactose * Maltose * Malt Syrup * Molasses * Raw sugar * Sucrose * Sugar * Syrup | Two Types of Carbohydrates
There are two major types of carbohydrates (or carbs) in foods: simple and complex.
Simple carbohydrates: These are also called simple sugars. Simple sugars are found in refined sugars, like the white sugar you'd find in a sugar bowl. If you have a lollipop, you're eating simple carbs. But you'll also find simple sugars in more nutritious foods, such as fruit and milk. It's better to get your simple sugars from food like fruit and milk. Why? Because sugar isn't added to these foods and they also contain vitamins, fiber, and important nutrients like calcium. A lollipop has lots of added sugar and doesn't contain important nutrients.
Complex carbohydrates: These are also called starches. Starches include grain products, such as bread, crackers, pasta, and rice. As with simple sugars, some complex carbohydrate foods are better choices than others. Refined (say: ree-find) grains, such as white flour and white rice, have been processed, which removes nutrients and fiber. But unrefined grains still contain these vitamins and minerals. Unrefined grains also are rich in fiber, which helps your digestive system work well. Fiber helps you feel full, so you are less likely to overeat these foods. That explains why a bowl of oatmeal fills you up better than sugary candy with the same amount of calories as the oatmeal.
So which type of carbs should you eat? Both can be part of a healthy diet.
How the Body Uses Carbohydrates
When you eat carbs, your body breaks them down into simple sugars, which are absorbed into the bloodstream. As the sugar level rises in your body, the pancreas releases a hormone called insulin. Insulin is needed to move sugar from the blood into the cells, where the sugar can be used as a source of energy.
When this process goes fast — as with simple sugars — you're more likely to feel hungry again soon. When it occurs more slowly, as with a whole-grain food, you'll be satisfied longer. These types of complex carbohydrates give you energy over a longer period of time.
The carbs in some foods (mostly those that contain a lot of simple sugars) cause the blood sugar level to rise more quickly than others. Scientists have been studying whether eating foods that cause big jumps in blood sugar may be related to health problems like diabetes and heart disease.
You're probably already on the right track if you are limiting simple sugars (such as candy) and eating more complex carbohydrates (like vegetables, oatmeal, and whole-grain wheat bread).
Carbohydrates
Nowadays, we hear about carbohydrate all the time.
Foods that contain carbohydrate raise blood glucose. By keeping track of how many grams of carbohydrate you eat and setting a limit for your maximum amount to eat, you can help to keep your blood glucose levels in your target range. You may also be interested in our book, Diabetes Carbohydrate and Fat Gram Guide, 3rd Edition.
Did you know there are three main types of carbohydrate? There are * Starches (also known as complex carbohydrates) * Sugars * Fiber
You'll also hear terms like naturally occurring sugar, added sugar, low-calorie sweeteners, sugar alcohols, reduced-calorie sweeteners, processed grains, enriched grains, complex carbohydrate, sweets, refined grains and whole grains.
No wonder knowing what kind and how much carbohydrate to eat can be confusing!
On the nutrition label, the term "total carbohydrate" includes all three types of carbohydrates. This is the number you should pay attention to if you are carbohydrate counting.
Starch
Foods high in starch include: * Starchy vegetables like peas, corn, lima beans and potatoes * Dried beans, lentils and peas such as pinto beans, kidney beans, black eyed peas and split peas * Grains like oats, barley and rice. (The majority of grain products in the US are made from wheat flour. These include pasta, bread and crackers but the variety is expanding to include other grains as well.)
The grain group can be broken down even further into whole grain or refined grain.
A grain, let's take wheat for example, contains three parts: * bran * germ * endosperm
The bran is the outer hard shell of the grain. It is the part of the grain that provides the most fiber and most of the B vitamins and minerals.
The germ is the next layer and is packed with nutrients including essential fatty acids and vitamin E.
The endosperm is the soft part in the center of the grain. It contains the starch. Whole grain means that the entire grain kernel is in the food.
If you eat a whole grain food, it contains the bran, germ, and endosperm so you get all of the nutrients that whole grains have to offer. If you eat a refined grain food, it contains only the endosperm or the starchy part so you miss out on a lot of vitamins and minerals. Because whole grains contain the entire grain, they are much more nutritious than refined grains.
Sugar
Sugar is another type of carbohydrate. You may also hear sugar referred to as simple or fast-acting carbohydrate. There are two main types of sugar: * naturally occurring sugars such as those in milk or fruit * added sugars such as those added during processing such as fruit canned in heavy syrup or sugar added to make a cookie
On the nutrition facts label, the number of sugar grams includes both added and natural sugars.
There are many different names for sugar. Examples of common names are table sugar, brown sugar, molasses, honey, beet sugar, cane sugar, confectioner's sugar, powdered sugar, raw sugar, turbinado, maple syrup, high-fructose corn syrup, agave nectar and sugar cane syrup.
You may also see table sugar listed by its chemical name, sucrose. Fruit sugar is also known as fructose and the sugar in milk is called lactose. You can recognize other sugars on labels because their chemical names also end in "-ose." For example glucose (also called dextrose), fructose (also called levulose), lactose and maltose.
If you are looking for information about artificial sweeteners, try this section.
Fiber
Fiber comes from plant foods so there is no fiber in animal products such as milk, eggs, meat, poultry and fish.
Fiber is the indigestible part of plant foods, including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts and legumes. When you consume dietary fiber, most of it passes through the intestines and is not digested.
For good health, adults need to try to eat 25 to 30 grams of fiber each day. Most Americans do not consume nearly enough fiber in their diet, so while it is wise to aim for this goal, any increase in fiber in your diet can be beneficial. Most of us only get about ½ what is recommended.
Fiber contributes to digestive health, helps to keep you regular and helps to make you feel full and satisfied after eating. Additional health benefits, of a diet high in fiber — such as a reduction in cholesterol levels — have been suggested by some so may be an additional benefit.
Good sources of dietary fiber include: * Beans and legumes. Think black beans, kidney beans, pintos, chick peas (garbanzos), white beans, and lentils. * Fruits and vegetables, especially those with edible skin (for example, apples, corn and beans) and those with edible seeds (for example, berries). * Whole grains such as: * Whole wheat pasta * Whole grain cereals (Look for those with three grams of dietary fiber or more per serving, including those made from whole wheat, wheat bran, and oats.) * Whole grain breads (To be a good source of fiber, one slice of bread should have at least three grams of fiber. Another good indication: look for breads where the first ingredient is a whole grain. For example, whole whe+at or oats.) Many grain products now have "double fiber" with extra fiber added. * Nuts — try different kinds. Peanuts, walnuts and almonds are a good source of fiber and healthy fat, but watch portion sizes, because they also contain a lot of calories in a small amount.
In general, an excellent source of fiber contains five grams or more per serving, while a good source of fiber contains 2.5 - 4.9 grams per serving.
It is best to get your fiber from food rather than taking a supplement. In addition to the fiber, these foods have a wealth of nutrition, containing many important vitamins and minerals. In fact, they may contain nutrients that haven't even been discovered yet!
It is also important that you increase your fiber intake gradually, to prevent stomach irritation, and that you increase your intake of water and other liquids, to prevent constipation.
Carbohydrates

Complex carbohydrates, as natural starches, are found in wholegrain cereals and brown rice. |
Carbohydrates are an ideal source of energy for the body. This is because they can be converted more readily into glucose, the form of sugar that's transported and used by the body, than proteins or fats can.
Even so, a diet too high in carbohydrates can upset the delicate balance of your body's blood sugar level, resulting in fluctuations in energy and mood which leave you feeling irritated and tired.
It is better to balance your intake of carbohydrates with protein, a little fat and fibre.
There are two types of carbohydrate: complex and simple.
Complex carbohydrates
Complex carbohydrates are often referred to as starch or starchy foods. They are found naturally in foods and also refined in processed foods.
Complex carbohydrates as natural starches are found in: * bananas * barley * beans * brown rice * chickpeas * lentils * nuts * oats * parsnips * potatoes * root vegetables * sweet corn * wholegrain cereals * wholemeal breads * wholemeal cereals * wholemeal flour * wholemeal pasta * yams.
Complex carbohydrates as refined starches are found in: * biscuits, pastries and cakes * pizzas * sugary processed breakfast cereals * white bread * white flour * white pasta * white rice.
Simple carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrates are also known as sugars. They also exist in either a natural or refined form.
Natural sugars are found in fruit and vegetables.
Refined sugars are found in: * biscuits, cakes and pastries * chocolate * honey and jams * jellies * brown and white cane sugar * pizzas * prepared foods and sauces * soft drinks * sweets and snack bars.
Simple carbohydrates (sugar) cause tooth decay.
The difference between complex and simple carbohydrates
All carbohydrates form glucose when digested. Glucose is transported around the body via blood and taken into cells to be converted into energy.
The pancreas gland in your abdomen secretes the hormone insulin, which controls the uptake of glucose by your cells.
If you have any excess glucose, this is converted into glycogen – which is stored in the liver or in fat around the body.
When your body needs more energy, a second hormone called glucagon is secreted by the pancreas. This converts the glycogen back into glucose, which is then released into your bloodstream for your cells to use.
This means the body's glucose (sugar) metabolism is a cycle of glucose, insulin and glucagon reactions. * The slower the release of glucose and hormones, the more stable and sustainable the energy levels of the body. * The more refined the carbohydrate, the faster the glucose is released into your blood. This can cause peaks and drops in your blood sugar level and less stable energy levels in the body.
Complex carbohydrates provide a slower and more sustained release of energy than simple carbohydrates.
In their natural form they contribute to long-term good health, appetite control and sustained energy levels.
How much do I need?
Current advice is that we should get half our energy needs from carbohydrates, with at least one third of our daily intake of food being starchy carbohydrates.
According to the British Nutrition Foundation, the average adult's daily diet meets this target with women getting 47.7 per cent of their daily energy from carbs (203g) and men 48.5 per cent (275g).
But not all carbohydrates are equal: refined sugars should make up only 11 per cent of your daily diet. For adults, the average intake of refined sugars is slightly higher than this recommended level, with men the worst offenders at 13.6 per cent.
The average child's intake is 16 per cent, with the main culprits being fizzy drinks and confectionery.
Do carbohydrates make you fat?
Eating too much will lead to weight gain, regardless of what foods you get your energy from. Yet while low carb diets have had much publicity, gram for gram carbohydrates contain less calories than fat, protein and alcohol: * 1g carbohydrate contains 3.75 calories. * 1g protein contains 4 calories. * 1g fat contains 9 calories. * 1g alcohol contains 7 calories.
Sugar and starch are found in both healthy and 'unhealthy' foods, so the type of carbohydrates you eat is important for your wellbeing. * Many foods high in sugar (cakes, pastries, chocolate) are also high in fat or prepared with fat (chips, roast potatoes, sandwiches). * Starchy foods, such as wholegrain bread, pasta etc, are rich in fibre, which is essential for digestive health and helps control appetite so you don't feel hungry.
Tips for healthy living * Your daily diet should be a balance of carbohydrate and protein. As a guide, your plate should contain twice as many carbs as protein. * Base each of your meals on a complex carbohydrate, such as potato, wholemeal bread or brown rice, and include vegetables. Finish the meal with fruit, and this should ensure you get a balance of complex and simple carbohydrates. * Use high fibre wholegrain cereals as part of your breakfast, and use wholemeal bread for your toast. * For lunch, choose lean protein, such as fish or chicken, with only a small amount of carbohydrate to get you through the afternoon. * Large carbohydrate meals will make you slow and sleepy so save your big pasta meal for the evening. * Cut down on the amount of refined white flour products in your diet, such as white bread, pizza and white pasta and rice. The refining process produces simple carbohydrates and many vitamins and minerals are lost. * Fruit is naturally high in sugar, which means so are fruit juices and smoothies. In liquid form these sugars can damage your teeth. But these drinks count towards your five a day and contain fibre, vitamins and minerals. To avoid tooth decay, it's best to drink them with a meal.
Alternative Names
Starches; Simple sugars; Sugars; Complex carbohydrates; Diet - carbohydrates; Simple carbohydrates
Function
The primary function of carbohydrates is to provide energy for the body, especially the brain and the nervous system. An enzyme called amylase helps break down carbohydrates into glucose (blood sugar), which is used for energy by the body.
Food Sources
Carbohydrates are classified as simple or complex. The classification depends on the chemical structure of the food, and how quickly the sugar is digested and absorbed. Simple carbohydrates have one (single) or two (double) sugars. Complex carbohydrates have three or more sugars.
Examples of single sugars from foods include: * Fructose (found in fruits) * Galactose (found in milk products)
Double sugars include: * Lactose (found in dairy) * Maltose (found in certain vegetables and in beer) * Sucrose (table sugar)
Honey is also a double sugar. But unlike table sugar, it contains a small amount of vitamins and minerals. (Note: Honey should not be given to children younger than 1 year old.)
Complex carbohydrates, often referred to as "starchy" foods, include: * Legumes * Starchy vegetables * Whole-grain breads and cereals
Simple carbohydrates that contain vitamins and minerals occur naturally in: * Fruits * Milk and milk products * Vegetables
Simple carbohydrates are also found in processed and refined sugars such as: * Candy * Regular (nondiet) carbonated beverages, such as soda * Syrups * Table sugar
Refined sugars provide calories, but lack vitamins, minerals, and fiber. Such simple sugars are often called "empty calories" and can lead to weight gain.
Also, many refined foods, such as white flour, sugar, and white rice, lack B vitamins and other important nutrients unless they are marked "enriched." It is healthiest to get carbohydrates, vitamins, and other nutrients in as natural a form as possible -- for example, from fruit instead of table sugar.
Side Effects * Getting too many carbohydrates can lead to an increase in total calories, causing obesity. * Not getting enough carbohydrates can cause a lack of calories (malnutrition), or excessive intake of fats to make up the calories.
KEY TAKEAWAYS * The four primary functions of carbohydrates in the body are to provide energy, store energy, build macromolecules, and spare protein and fat for other uses. * Glucose energy is stored as glycogen, with the majority of it in the muscle and liver. The liver uses its glycogen reserve as a way to keep blood-glucose levels within a narrow range between meal times. Some glucose is also used as building blocks of important macromolecules, such as RNA, DNA, and ATP. * The presence of adequate glucose in the body spares the breakdown of proteins from being used to make glucose needed by the body.
The functions of carbohydrates are discussed below: * 1. As a source of energy: * The main function of carbohydrate is to supply energy for the body processes. A greater part of the energy in the diet (more than 50-80%) is supplied by carbohydrates. Some of the carbohydrates are immediately utilized by the tissues and the remaining is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles and some are stored as adipose tissues for future energy needs. * 2. Protein-sparing action: * Carbohydrates are mainly utilized by the body of fulfilling the major part of the energy needs, thus sparing protein for tissue building and repairing. The first physiological demand of the body is the need for energy, which must be satisfied before the nutrients are used for other functions. So, this function of carbohydrates to spare protein for its primary purpose of body building and repair of tissues is an important one. * 3. Essential for Fat Oxidation: * Even though fat yields twice as much as energy as carbohydrate for unit weight, carbohydrate is essential for oxidation of fats. The common expression that 'fat burns in the fire of carbohydrates' is used to emphasize that in absence of carbohydrates, fats cannot be oxidised by the body to yield energy. Recent studies have shown that oxalacetic acid, a breakdown product of carbohydrate is essential for the oxidation of acetate, which is the breakdown product of fats. In the absence of oxaloacetic acid acetate is converted into ketone bodies, which gets accumulated in the body and the person suffers from 'Ketosis'- a toxic condition of the body. Ketosis occurs in diabetes, where the cells cannot utilise carbohydrates and in starvation, where the cells must use fat stores in the body as a source of energy. * 4. Role in gastro-intestinal function: * Carbohydrates play an important role in the gastro-intestinal functions of mammals. Lactose promotes the growth of certain desirable bacteria in the small intestine which brings about the synthesis of certain B-complex Vitamins. Lactose also enhances the absorption of calcium. Cellulose provides fiber and bulk which helps in the stimulation of the peristaltic movements of the gastroinl tract. * 5. Add flavor to the diet: * Carbohydrate foods add flavor, variety and the diet. Since they are non-irritant, easily digestible when cooked are consumed i amount and forms the staple food of human beings.

Good sources of Carbohydrates * * spaghetti, noodles, macaroni with tomato sauce, rice, potatoes, yams, stuffing without butter or gravy, lentils, chili beans, split peas, bread, muffins, bagels, French toast, pancakes, cereal, jam, jelly, honey, syrup, bananas, pineapples, raisins, fig, apple crisp, date squares, fig newtons, fruit juices, sherbert, ice milk, frozen yogurt * * Poor sources of Carbohydrates * * pizza, lasagna with lots of meat and cheese, french fries, fried rice, buttery potato, casseroles with rich sauces and gravies, donuts, croissants, danish pastry, eggs and breakfast meats, butter, margarine, cream cheese, cookies, cakes, pastries made with lots of butter, alcohol, milk shakes, frappes, ice cream *

PROTEIN
Alternative Names
Diet - protein; Complete protein; Incomplete protein
Function
Every cell in the human body contains protein. It is a major part of the skin, muscles, organs, and glands. Protein is also found in all body fluids, except bile and urine.
You need protein in your diet to help your body repair cells and make new ones. Protein is also important for growth and development during childhood, adolescence, and pregnancy.
Food Sources
When proteins are digested, amino acids are left. The human body needs a number of amino acids to break down food. Amino acids need to be eaten in large enough amounts for optimal health.
Amino acids are found in animal sources such as meats, milk, fish, and eggs, as well as in plant sources such as soy, beans, legumes, nut butters, and some grains (such as wheat germ). You do not need to eat animal products to get all the protein you need in your diet.
Amino acids are classified into three groups: * Essential * Nonessential * Conditional
Essential amino acids cannot be made by the body, and must be supplied by food. They do not need to be eaten at one meal. The balance over the whole day is more important. The nine essential amino acids are: * Histidine * Isoleucine * Leucine * Lycine * Methionine * Phenylalanine * Threonine * Tryptophan * Valine
Nonessential amino acids are made by the body from essential amino acids or in the normal breakdown of proteins. They include: * Alanine * Asparagine * Aspartic acid * Glutamic acid
Conditional amino acids are usually not essential, except in times of illness and stress. They include: * Arginine * Cysteine * Glutamine * Glycine * Ornithine * Proline * Serine * Tyrosine
Protein foods are no longer described as being "complete proteins" or "incomplete proteins."
Side Effects
A diet high in meat can contribute to high cholesterol levels or other diseases such as gout. A high-protein diet may also put a strain on the kidneys.
-You probably know you need to eat protein, but what is it? Many foods contain protein (say: pro-teen), but the best sources are beef, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products, nuts, seeds, and legumes like black beans and lentils.
Protein builds, maintains, and replaces the tissues in your body. (Not the tissues you blow your nose in! We mean the stuff your body's made up of.) Your muscles, your organs, and your immune system are made up mostly of protein.

Your body uses the protein you eat to make lots of specialized protein molecules that have specific jobs. For instance, your body uses protein to makehemoglobin (say: hee-muh-glow-bin), the part of red blood cellsthat carries oxygen to every part of your body.
Other proteins are used to build cardiac muscle. What's that? Your heart! In fact, whether you're running or just hanging out, protein is doing important work like moving your legs, moving your lungs, and protecting you from disease.
All About Amino Acids
When you eat foods that contain protein, the digestive juices in your stomach and intestine go to work. They break down the protein in food into basic units, called amino acids (say uh-mee-noa-sids). The amino acids then can be reused to make the proteins your body needs to maintain muscles, bones, blood, and body organs.
Proteins are sometimes described as long necklaces with differently shaped beads. Each bead is a small amino acid. These amino acids can join together to make thousands of different proteins. Scientists have found many different amino acids in protein, but 22 of them are very important to human health.
Of those 22 amino acids, your body can make 13 of them without you ever thinking about it. Your body can't make the other nine amino acids, but you can get them by eating protein-rich foods. They are called essential amino acids because it's essential that you get them from the foods you eat.
Different Kinds of Protein
Protein from animal sources, such as meat and milk, is called complete, because it contains all nine of the essential amino acids. Most vegetable protein is considered incomplete because it lacks one or more of the essential amino acids. This can be a concern for someone who doesn't eat meat or milk products. But people who eat a vegetarian diet can still get all their essential amino acids by eating a wide variety of protein-rich vegetable foods.
For instance, you can't get all the amino acids you need from peanuts alone, but if you have peanut butter on whole-grain bread you're set. Likewise, red beans won't give you everything you need, but red beans and rice will do the trick.
The good news is that you don't have to eat all the essential amino acids in every meal. As long as you have a variety of protein sources throughout the day, your body will grab what it needs from each meal.
How Much Is Enough?
You can figure out how much protein you need if you know how much you weigh. Each day, kids need to eat about 0.5 grams of protein for every pound (0.5 kilograms) they weigh. That's a gram for every 2 pounds (1 kilogram) you weigh. Your protein needs will grow as you get bigger, but then they will level off when you reach adult size. Adults, for instance, need about 60 grams per day.
To figure out your protein needs, multiply your weight in pounds times 0.5 or you can just take your weight and divide by 2. For instance, a 70-pound (or 32-kilogram) kid should have about 35 grams of protein every day. If you only know your weight in kilograms, you need about 1 gram of protein each day for every kilogram you weigh.
You can look at a food label to find out how many protein grams are in a serving. But if you're eating a balanced diet, you don't need to keep track of it. It's pretty easy to get enough protein. Here's an example of how a kid might get about 35 grams of protein in a day: * 2 tablespoons (15 milliliters) peanut butter (7 grams protein) * 1 cup (240 milliliters) low-fat milk (8 grams protein) * 1 ounce (30 grams) or two domino-size pieces of cheddar cheese (7 grams protein) * 1.5 ounces (90 grams) chicken breast (10.5 grams protein) * ½ cup (80 grams) broccoli (2 grams protein)
Of course, you can choose your own favorite combination of protein-rich foods — now that you're a pro at protein!
What is protein?
Proteins are complex substances, made up of chains of amino acids. Amino acids are building blocks that combine in different formations to make up the proteins in your body. There are 20 amino acids in total – your body can make some of these itself, but there are nine that you can only get from protein that you eat. These are called essential amino acids.
When you eat protein, it’s broken down into amino acids. These can then be rearranged into new proteins that your body needs.
Why do I need protein?
Protein is essential for the healthy growth of all of your body tissues – such as your muscles (including your heart), internal organs (such as your lungs and liver) and skin – and also for repair of these tissues. On top of this, it’s a good source of energy too.
What foods contain protein?
Different foods contain different amounts of amino acids. Foods that are high in protein are said to be either complete or incomplete proteins. Complete proteins contain all the essential amino acids, whereas incomplete proteins contain some but not all of them.
On the whole, you can only get complete proteins from animal products, such as meat, fish, dairy produce and eggs. The only plant proteins that contain all the essential amino acids are soya beans and foods made from them, and a grain called quinoa. Examples of incomplete proteins include beans and other pulses, nuts and seeds and cereals. However, most people living in the developed world eat a wide range of foods that contain protein so even if you’re a vegetarian, you’re likely to be getting all the amino acids your body needs.
How much protein do I need?
Although you can estimate how much protein you need to eat, it’s impossible to set exact guidelines as your requirements will vary depending on factors such as how much you weigh and how old you are. However, on average, two to three servings a day will be enough to meet your body’s needs. As a guide, a portion could be two eggs or a piece of cooked meat (100g) or fish (140g) about the size of a deck of cards.
Even if you’re not a vegetarian, it’s still important to eat a variety of different types of foods that contain protein. Try to eat two portions of fish a week, of which one is an oily fish such as sardines, salmon or mackerel.
Eating too much?
Although meat is an excellent source of protein, there is a down side as some types can be very high in fat. Too much fat in your diet can lead to health problems, such as heart disease and high blood pressure.
Some tips that will help you to lower how much fat you eat but still give you the protein you need include the following. * Choose lean cuts of meat. * Remove the skin from chicken and turkey. * Cut off excess fat that you can see. * Rather than fry meat, grill it or roast it. If you roast it, put the meat on a metal rack above a roasting tin, so the fat can drain away. * Reduce the amount of high-fat meat products, such as sausages and burgers, in your diet.
Try to vary the foods you eat so that you don’t rely solely on meat for protein.
You may have heard of the Atkins diet – it’s the diet that involves eating lots of protein-rich food and cutting down on the amount of carbohydrates you eat. This raised some concerns about the possible health effects that too much protein can have on your body but the Atkins diet has changed over time to help prevent these problems. However, it may still give you headaches and you may get constipation. It’s important to talk to your doctor before you start the diet as it’s not suitable for everybody, for example if you have kidney disease you shouldn’t follow the diet.
There doesn’t appear to be any evidence that following a high-protein diet is any more effective for long-term weight loss than eating a healthy, balanced diet.
Eating too little?
Most people in the UK and the rest of the developed world get more protein than they need in their diet. Even elite athletes who need extra protein to build and maintain their muscles are probably getting enough. You may have heard about protein supplements that claim to boost your muscle strength, but there is no evidence to suggest that they are of any benefit. You’re better off getting the protein you need by eating a balanced diet with a good variety of animal and plant sources of protein.
If you’re trying to lose weight and eating a very restricted diet, you may not get as much protein as you need. If you’re not eating enough, your body will start to use its stores of protein for energy, which will result in your muscles feeling weak.
Protein power
It’s really important to include protein in your diet so that your body can grow and repair itself. Try these tips to make sure you get enough in the healthiest way possible. * Even if you’re not a vegetarian, make sure you don’t just get your protein from meat and dairy products as these are often high in fat. * Eat fish twice a week and include a portion of oily fish as it can give you a healthy protein boost and may also help to protect your heart. * Ensure your diet includes a range of foods that contain protein.
Protein1
Proteins are polymers of L-amino acids and glycine linked via α-peptide bonds. They can be represented as primary, secondary, tertiary, and even quaternary structures, but from a nutritional viewpoint, only the primary amino acid sequence is of interest. Similarly, although there are many compounds in the body that can be chemically classified as amino acids, we are only concerned with the 20 present in proteins plus 4 others, ornithine, citrulline, γ-aminobutyrate, and taurine, that play quantitatively important roles in the body. Although we consume proteins, they are digested in the gastrointestinal tract, absorbed as small peptides (di- and tripeptides) and free amino acids, and then used to resynthesize proteins in our cells. Additionally, some amino acids are also used for the synthesis of specific, nonprotein products such as NO, polyamines, nucleotides, glucosamine, hormones, neurotransmitters, and other factors. Again, such functions are not quantitatively important and the bulk of amino acid metabolism is directly related to protein turnover (synthesis and degradation). For an individual in nitrogen balance, an amount of nitrogen equal to that of the daily protein intake is degraded each day, with the nitrogen being excreted as urea and ammonia and the carbon skeletons being used for gluconeogenesis or ketone body synthesis before oxidation to carbon dioxide.
Of the 20 amino acids present in protein, 9 are considered nutritionally indispensable (essential) in adult humans, because the body is either not able to synthesize them or cannot synthesize them in adequate amounts to maintain growth and/or nitrogen balance. These 9 are leucine, valine, isoleucine, histidine, lysine, methionine, threonine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine. In addition, 2 can only be made from their indispensable precursors, tyrosine from phenylalanine and cysteine from methionine. Although arginine is needed in neonates, it appears that adults, with the possible exceptions of during pregnancy in females and for spermatogenesis in males, can synthesize sufficient arginine. The others, glutamate, glutamine, aspartate, asparagine, serine, glycine, proline, and alanine, can all be synthesized from glucose and a suitable nitrogen source. Under some conditions, glutamine, glycine, proline, and arginine may be considered as conditionally indispensable, meaning that the body is not capable of synthesizing them in sufficient quantities required for a specific physiological or pathological condition. Thus, any discussion of dietary protein must consider not only quantity but also quality (ratio of the indispensable amino acids). Deficiencies
Frank deficiencies of dietary protein are usually classified into marasmus, a general wasting due to a deficiency of both protein and energy, and kwashiorkor, characterized by a distinctive edema and a deficiency of both protein quantity and quality. Less severe deficiencies, due to low intake or an imbalance in indispensable amino acid intake, may result in reduced growth in children or a loss of lean body mass in adults. These may then lead to increased susceptibility to disease and subsequent problems.
Diet recommendations
The current DRI for adults is 0.8 g protein/kg body weight/d with an extra 10 or 15 g recommended for pregnant and lactating women, respectively (1). Requirements are also higher for growing children and in some pathological states. In the US, the average intake is ∼64 g and 104 g for adult women and men, respectively, or ∼15% of calories. Protein deficiency is relatively rare in young adults who consume regular diets. Recent studies (2), however, indicate that in the US, 20% of home-bound elderly individuals may not have adequate intake of one or more indispensable amino acids.
Food sources
The protein content of foods varies considerably, but in general animal sources tend to be superior in both protein quantity and quality compared with plant foodstuffs. Meat, eggs, and milk are all considered excellent sources of high-quality protein and egg protein is often taken as the ideal (complete) protein with which the indispensable amino acid profile of other foodstuffs is compared. Some plant-based foods do contain considerable amounts of proteins, most notably legumes such as beans, peas, and lentils. Comparatively few plant-based foods, however, provide sufficient amounts of all the indispensable amino acids. Most legumes tend to be deficient in methionine, and although potatoes contain relatively large amounts of protein, the indispensable amino acid ratios are poor. Other plant-based foodstuffs tend to contain low amounts of protein with varying limitations in their quality. Cereals, e.g., tend to be low in lysine and tryptophan content, although they do contain sufficient methionine. Thus, the combination of different plant-based foods in dishes such as rice and beans, or peanut butter and bread, results in a complementary effect that raises the protein quality compared with either food consumed alone. Therefore, it is possible to obtain adequate amounts of high-quality protein from a vegetarian or vegan diet. It should be noted, however, that taurine may be required for neonates and that taurine is only present in animal-based foodstuffs.
The protein quantity in a food is usually reported as the total nitrogen content multiplied by 6.25. This is justified, because most amino acids contain 16% nitrogen. However, it should be recognized that foods may contain additional nitrogenous compounds and thus for some foodstuffs the reported protein content may be an under- or overrepresentation. A more accurate indication of both protein quantity and quality of a food can be determined from the analysis of its constituent amino acids (the chemical score), but ideally this should be complemented with a biologically based test to determine the availability of those amino acids.
Clinical uses
The use of supplemental individual amino acids or a general increase in total protein intake may be appropriate in a disease-specific manner. Conversely, in some conditions, such as renal failure or inborn errors of the urea cycle, a low-protein diet may be prescribed, but this does not mean that protein requirements have decreased; indeed, they may have increased. Similarly, various inborn errors of amino acid metabolism may result in the restriction of certain amino acids and possibly increased requirements for others. For example, dietary phenylalanine should be restricted in patients with phenylketonuria, but, due to the lack of tyrosine synthesis in such patients, tyrosine now becomes indispensable. Similarly, deficiencies of other amino acids may arise through other inborn errors of amino acid transport or metabolism and it is important to provide such amino acids as appropriate.
Toxicity
There is little information regarding the toxicity of either protein or individual amino acids in healthy humans. Protein consumption as high as 35% of energy appears to be well tolerated, but there is insufficient data to establish a tolerable upper level, although there may be conditions where protein restriction is recommended. Some amino acids may be toxic, as is seen in various genetic disorders of metabolism, but detailed toxicity data are rare. Other amino acids, e.g. glutamine, seem to be readily tolerated at doses up to 40–50 g/d with no adverse effects (3). According to the DRI for Protein and Amino Acids, “caution should be exercised with regard to using any single amino acid at levels significantly higher than those found in normal food” (1).
Recent research
Extensive research is currently being undertaken to definitively determine the dietary recommendations for each indispensable amino acid across the lifespan and in response to changes in physiological and pathological status. Much of such work involves the use of stable isotopes and methodologies such as the direct amino acid oxidation method (1). Similarly, there is continuing research into both the benefits of supplemental amino acids and fuller attempts to determine their toxicity. Results from such studies should provide much more accurate recommendations for dietary protein and amino acid intake over the next few years.
Protein in diet
Proteins are the building blocks of life. The body needs protein to repair and maintain itself. The basic structure of protein is a chain of amino acids.
Function
Every cell in the human body contains protein. It is a major part of the skin, muscles, organs, and glands. Protein is also found in all body fluids, except bile and urine.
You need protein in your diet to help your body repair cells and make new ones. Protein is also important for growth and development during childhood, adolescence, and pregnancy.
Food Sources
When proteins are digested, amino acids are left. The human body needs a number of amino acids to break down food. Amino acids need to be eaten in large enough amounts for optimal health.
Amino acids are found in animal sources such as meats, milk, fish, and eggs, as well as in plant sources such as soy, beans, legumes, nut butters, and some grains (such as wheat germ). You do not need to eat animal products to get all the protein you need in your diet.
Amino acids are classified into three groups: * Essential * Nonessential * Conditional
Essential amino acids cannot be made by the body, and must be supplied by food. They do not need to be eaten at one meal. The balance over the whole day is more important. The nine essential amino acids are: * Histidine * Isoleucine * Leucine * Lycine * Methionine * Phenylalanine * Threonine * Tryptophan * Valine
Nonessential amino acids are made by the body from essential amino acids or in the normal breakdown of proteins. They include: * Alanine * Asparagine * Aspartic acid * Glutamic acid
Conditional amino acids are usually not essential, except in times of illness and stress. They include: * Arginine * Cysteine * Glutamine * Glycine * Ornithine * Proline * Serine * Tyrosine
Protein foods are no longer described as being "complete proteins" or "incomplete proteins."
Side Effects
A diet high in meat can contribute to high cholesterol levels or other diseases such as gout. A high-protein diet may also put a strain on the kidneys.
Recommendations
A nutritionally balanced diet provides enough protein. Healthy people rarely need protein supplements.
Vegetarians are able to get enough essential amino by eating a variety of plant proteins.
The amount of recommended daily protein depends upon your age and health. Two to three servings of protein-rich food will meet the daily needs of most adults.
The following are the recommended serving sizes for protein: * 2 to 3 ounces of cooked lean meat, poultry, or fish (a portion about the size of a deck of playing cards) * 1/2 cup of cooked dried beans * 1 egg, 2 tablespoons of peanut butter, or 1 ounce of cheese
For recommended serving sizes of protein for children and adolescents, see age-appropriate diet for children.
Choose:
* Turkey or chicken with the skin removed, or bison (also called buffalo meat) * Lean cuts of beef or pork, such as round, top sirloin, or tenderloin (trim away any visible fat) * Fish or shellfish
Other good sources of protein include: * Pinto beans, black beans, kidney beans, lentils, split peas, or garbanzo beans * Nuts and seeds, including almonds, hazelnuts, mixed nuts, peanuts, peanut butter, sunflower seeds, or walnuts (just watch how much you eat, because nuts are high in fat) * Tofu, tempeh, and other soy protein products * Low-fat dairy products
Do not eat more than four eggs per week. Although they are a good source of protein and are low in saturated fat, eggs are very high in cholesterol. Try recipes with egg whites only.
For more information, see the food guide plate.
Alternative Names
Diet - protein; Complete protein; Incomplete protein
6 Primary Functions of Proteins
Protein is an important substance found in every cell in the human body. In fact, except for water, protein is the most abundant substance in your body. This protein is manufactured by your body utilizing the dietary protein you consume. It is used in many vital processes and thus needs to be consistently replaced. You can accomplish this by regularly consuming foods that contain protein.
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Repair and Maintenance
Protein is termed the building block of the body. It is called this because protein is vital in the maintenance of body tissue, including development and repair. Hair, skin, eyes, muscles and organs are all made from protein. This is why children need more protein per pound of body weight than adults; they are growing and developing new protein tissue.
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Energy
Protein is a major source of energy. If you consume more protein than you need for body tissue maintenance and other necessary functions, your body will use it for energy. If it is not needed due to sufficient intake of other energy sources such as carbohydrates, the protein will be used to create fat and becomes part of fat cells.
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Hormones
Protein is involved in the creation of some hormones. These substances help control body functions that involve the interaction of several organs. Insulin, a small protein, is an example of a hormone that regulates blood sugar. It involves the interaction of organs such as the pancreas and the liver. Secretin, is another example of a protein hormone. This substance assists in the digestive process by stimulating the pancreas and the intestine to create necessary digestive juices.
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Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins that increase the rate of chemical reactions in the body. In fact, most of the necessary chemical reactions in the body would not efficiently proceed without enzymes. For example, one type of enzyme functions as an aid in digesting large protein, carbohydrate and fat molecules into smaller molecules, while another assists the creation of DNA.
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Transportation and Storage of Molecules
Protein is a major element in transportation of certain molecules. For example, hemoglobin is a protein that transports oxygen throughout the body. Protein is also sometimes used to store certain molecules. Ferritin is an example of a protein that combines with iron for storage in the liver.
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Antibodies
Protein forms antibodies that help prevent infection, illness and disease. These proteins identify and assist in destroying antigens such as bacteria and viruses. They often work in conjunction with the other immune system cells. For example, these antibodies identify and then surround antigens in order to keep them contained until they can be destroyed by white blood
Summary
Protein makes up about half of the human body's dry weight. Many of the foods we eat contain protein, particularly flesh foods (chicken, beef, lamb and fish) and legumes. Proteins are digested to release amino acids. In the body, amino acids are used to make new proteins, converted into hormones such as adrenalin or may be used as an energy source.

Brain cells, muscle, skin, hair and nails are just some of the body parts that are protein-based. Estimates suggest that about half of the human body’s dry weight is made up of protein.

Many of the foods we eat contain protein, particularly flesh foods (chicken, beef, lamb and fish), and legumes like beans and lentils. These proteins are digested to release amino acids. In the body, amino acids are used to make new proteins, converted into hormones such as adrenalin or are used as an energy source.
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How much protein you need

The amount of protein you need in your diet depends on your weight, age and health. As a rough guide, the recommended dietary intake (RDI) for protein (measured in grams per kilogram of bodyweight) is: * 0.75 g/kg for adult women * 0.84 g/kg for adult men * Around 1 g/kg for pregnant and breastfeeding women, and for men and women over 70 years.
So, for example, a 75 kg adult male would need 63 g of protein per day. It is recommended that 15 to 25 per cent of total energy intake per day is from protein sources.

The needs of children and adolescents also vary according to their age and weight. A full list of recommendations for dietary protein is available from the Australian Nutrient Reference Values (NRVs) website.

Most Australians eat far more protein than they actually need, so deficiencies are rare.

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Sources of protein

Some sources of dietary protein include: * Meat, poultry and fish * Cereal and cereal-based products * Eggs * Dairy products * Seeds and nuts * Beans and lentils * Soy products * Grains, especially wheat, and less so rice, barley and corn.
The Australian Guide to Healthy Eating recommends the following serves per day from the lean meat, poultry, fish, eggs, legumes and beans, and nuts and seeds food category: * 3 serves for adult men * 2½ serves for adult women * 2½ to 3½ serves for breastfeeding and pregnant women
A standard serving size is one of the following: * 65 g cooked lean red meats * 80 g cooked poultry * 100 g cooked fish fillet * 2 large eggs * 1 cup cooked dried beans, lentils, chickpeas, split peas or canned beans * 170 g tofu * 30 g nuts or seeds.
Adult men are recommended to consume 2½ serves of (mostly low-fat) dairy or alternatives per day and 2½ to 4 serves per day for adult women. A serve could include either: * 250 ml (1 cup) milk * 200 g (3/4 cup or 1 small carton) yoghurt * 40 g (2 slices) hard cheese
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Amino acids explained

Proteins are made up of chains of smaller building blocks called amino acids, which are chemically linked to each other. There are about 20 different amino acids that, in different combinations, make up the countless millions of proteins available in nature. A protein can consist of between 50 and tens of thousands of amino acids.

There are two broad classes of amino acids: those that can be made by the human body (non-essential amino acids) and those that can only be supplied by food (essential amino acids).

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Nutritional value of protein

A protein’s nutritional value is measured by the quantity of essential amino acids it provides. Different foods contain different numbers and amounts of amino acids. Generally speaking: * Animal products (such as chicken, beef or fish) contain all of the essential amino acids. * Soy products and the seed of a leafy green called Amaranth (consumed in Asia and the Mediterranean) also contain all of the essential amino acids. However, plant proteins usually lack at least one amino acid.
People following a strict vegetarian or vegan diet need to choose a variety of protein sources from a combination of plant foods throughout the day to get an adequate mix of amino acids. For example, a meal containing cereals and legumes, such as baked beans on toast, provides all the essential amino acids found in a typical meat dish.

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Digestion of proteins

A protein-rich food, such as meat, is broken down into individual proteins by the gastric juices in your stomach. Pancreatic enzymes released into the first portion of your small intestine (duodenum) split the proteins into their separate amino acids. The amino acids are absorbed by the small finger-like projections (villi) lining the intestine walls, and are taken to the liver via the bloodstream.

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How amino acids are used

The human body uses amino acids in three main ways: * Protein synthesis – new proteins are created constantly. For example, as old, dead cells are sloughed off the skin surface, new ones are pushed up to replace them. * Precursors of other compounds – a range of substances are created using amino acids, (for example, the brain chemical (neurotransmitter) serotonin and the ‘fight or flight’ chemical adrenalin). * Energy – although carbohydrates are the body’s preferred fuel source, about 10 per cent of energy is obtained from protein.
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Ammonia – a toxic byproduct of protein

One of the byproducts of protein metabolism is ammonia. In high levels, ammonia is extremely dangerous to the body and so is converted into urea. This water-soluble chemical is collected by the kidneys and eliminated from the body in our urine. The more protein we eat each day, in excess of our needs, the more work our kidneys must do to expel ammonia.

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Amount of protein needed each day

Some people, such as growing children, pregnant women and breastfeeding mothers, need slightly more protein than the recommended daily intake (RDI). However, most Australians consume more than enough dietary protein, so deficiencies are rare.

From 50 years onwards, ageing is associated with loss of skeletal muscle, a condition known as sarcopenia, which, in the elderly is worsened by chronic illness, poor diet and inactivity. It is likely that protein intake at the upper end of the RDI range can maintain muscle mass and strength, which is vital for walking ability.

It is also important for the elderly to eat protein ‘effectively’, which means to consume high-quality protein foods, such as lean meats.

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Strenuous exercise doesn’t mean you need extra protein

Contrary to popular belief, people who exercise vigorously or are trying to put on muscle mass do not need to consume extra protein. Studies show that weight-trainers who do not eat extra protein (either in food or protein powders) still gain muscle at the same rate as weight-trainers who supplement their diets with protein. A very high-protein diet can strain the kidneys and liver, and prompt excessive loss of the mineral calcium.

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Timing of protein consumption

Soon after exercising (either resistance or aerobic), it is recommended consuming a high-quality protein source (such as a glass of milk or tub of yoghurt) combined with a carbohydrate meal to help positive protein balance. Studies have shown this to be beneficial for maintaining protein balance even when following low to moderate aerobic exercise (such as walking), particularly for older adults.

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Symptoms of protein deficiency

The human body cannot store protein, so it must be supplied on a daily basis from the foods we eat. Strict vegetarians who do not consume any animal products at all are at increased risk of protein deficiency if they do not eat a wide range of plant proteins.

Symptoms of protein deficiency include: * Wasting and shrinkage of muscle tissue * Oedema (build-up of fluids, particularly in the feet and ankles) * Anaemia (the blood’s inability to deliver sufficient oxygen to the cells, usually caused by dietary deficiencies such as lack of iron) * Slow growth (in children).
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Very high protein diets are dangerous

Some weight trainers and bodybuilders believe that high protein diets lead to increased muscle mass. High protein diets promote intakes of protein of between 200 and 400 g per day, which equates to approximately 5 g/kg each day (more than five times the RDI). This belief is false. It is the stimulation of muscle tissue through exercise, not extra dietary protein, that leads to muscle growth.

The RDI for protein provides adequate protein to build and repair muscles even for body builders and athletes. Fad diets that favour very high protein and fat intake, combined with very low carbohydrate intake, may be harmful.

Some of the problems with very high protein diets (more than 35 per cent of total daily intake) include that: * They usually promote a very low intake of carbohydrates. Glucose, made when your body breaks down dietary carbohydrate, is your body’s preferred fuel source. If your body does not receive enough dietary carbohydrate, it will break down muscle tissue to make glucose. This causes muscle wastage, reduced metabolism and a build-up of ketones. * Fibre is largely a carbohydrate. Foods rich in carbohydrates (such as wholegrains and legumes) are also rich in fibre. Avoiding these foods leads to an overall low-fibre intake, which can result in constipation, bowel disorders and increased risk of colon cancer. * There is evidence to suggest that the heart may not function as well if its main source of fuel is ketones. * High intake of animal products (which is usually recommended in such diets) can also be high in saturated fats and cholesterol, which is associated with a range of conditions including heart disease. * The liver and kidneys are put under strain because they have to detoxify and eliminate unusually high quantities of protein byproducts. Kidney problems may be exacerbated in people with diabetes. * There is an increased risk of developing gout and gall bladder colic. * Greater losses of body calcium may increase the risk of osteoporosis. * High protein diets can cause mild dehydration due to increased water loss through urine. Increased risk of dehydration puts the body under pressure. * Recent research shows that weight loss over one year is not greater on a high protein diet when compared to safer, low fat eating patterns.
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Where to get help * Your doctor * Dietitians Association of Australia Tel. 1800 812 942
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Things to remember * Proteins are made up of chains of smaller chemicals called amino acids. * The human body cannot store amino acids, so it must be supplied daily from the foods we eat. * Very high protein diets combined with very low carbohydrate intakes are not recommended.
Eight Types of Protein and Their Function

Proteins are macronutrients that support the growth and maintenance of body tissues. Amino acids are the basic building blocks of proteins and are classified as essential or non-essential. Essential amino acids are obtained from protein-rich foods such as meat, legumes and poultry, while non-essential ones are synthesized naturally in your body. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, you should obtain 10 percent to 25 percent of your daily calorie needs from proteins.
We provide unique ranges of lipids for research, i.e Labelled Lipids
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Hormonal
Hormones are protein-based chemicals secreted by the cells of the endocrine glands. Usually transported through the blood, hormones act as chemical messengers that transmit signals from one cell to another. Each hormone affects certain cells in your body, known as target cells. Such cells have specific receptors on which the hormone attaches itself to transmit the signals. An example of a hormonal protein is insulin, which is secreted by the pancreas to regulate the levels of blood sugar in your body.
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Enzymatic
Enzymatic proteins accelerate metabolic processes in your cells, including liver functions, stomach digestion, blood clotting and converting glycogen to glucose. An example is digestive enzymes that break down food into simpler forms that your body can easily absorb.
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Structural
Also known as fibrous proteins, structural proteins are necessary components of your body. They include collagen, keratin and elastin. Collagen forms the connective framework of your muscles, bones, tendons, skin and cartilage. Keratin is the main structural component in hair, nails, teeth and skin.
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Defensive
Antibodies, or immunoglobulin, are a core part of your immune system, keeping diseases at bay. Antibodies are formed in the white blood cells and attack bacteria, viruses and other harmful microorganisms, rendering them inactive.
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Storage
Storage proteins mainly store mineral ions such as potassium in your body. Iron, for example, is an ion required for the formation of hemoglobin, the main structural component of red blood cells. Ferritin -- a storage protein -- regulates and guards against the adverse effects of excess iron in your body. Ovalbumin and casein are storage proteins found in breast milk and egg whites, respectively, that play a huge role in embryonic development.
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Transport
Transport proteins carry vital materials to the cells. Hemoglobin, for example, carries oxygen to body tissues from the lungs. Serum albumin carries fats in your bloodstream, while myoglobin absorbs oxygen from hemoglobin and then releases it to the muscles. Calbindin is another transport protein that facilitates the absorption of calcium from the intestinal walls.
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Receptor
Located on the outer part of the cells, receptor proteins control the substances that enter and leave the cells, including water and nutrients. Some receptors activate enzymes, while others stimulate endocrine glands to secrete epinephrine and insulin to regulate blood sugar levels.
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Contractile
Also known as motor proteins, contractile proteins regulate the strength and speed of heart and muscle contractions. These proteins are actin and myosin. Contractile proteins can cause heart complications if they produce severe contractions.
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Types of Proteins
A protein molecule that consists of but a single polypeptide chain is said to be monomeric; proteins made up of more than one polypeptide chain, as many of the large ones are, are called oligomeric. Based upon chemical composition, proteins are divided into two major classes: simple proteins, which are composed of only amino acids, and conjugated proteins, which are composed of amino acids and additional organic and inorganic groupings, certain of which are called prosthetic groups. Conjugated proteins include glycoproteins, which contain carbohydrates; lipoproteins, which contain lipids; and nucleoproteins, which contain nucleic acids.
Classified by biological function, proteins include the enzymes, which are responsible for catalyzing the thousands of chemical reactions of the living cell; keratin, elastin, and collagen, which are important types of structural, or support, proteins; hemoglobin and other gas transport proteins; ovalbumin, casein, and other nutrient molecules; antibodies, which are molecules of the immune system (seeimmunity); protein hormones, which regulate metabolism; and proteins that perform mechanical work, such as actin and myosin, the contractile muscle proteins.
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A LIST OF PROTEIN DEFICIENCY DISEASES

MARASMUS
Marasmus is a disease caused by a severe deficiency of protein and calories that affect infants and very young children, often resulting in weight loss and dehydration. Marasmus can develop into starvation and cause fatality caused by a lack of essential nutrients. People with marasmus appear bony with little muscle tissue, according to Food4Africa.
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KWASHIORKOR
Kwashiorkor is a disease caused by a severe deficiency of protein in diets that contain calories mostly from carbohydrates such as yams, rice and bananas. It usually affects older children. People with kwashiorkor appear puffy in the abdomen area from retention of fluid, according to the University of Maryland Medical Center. Common symptoms of both marasmus and kwashiorkor include fatigue, irritability, diarrhea, stunted growth and impairment of cognition and mental health.
DEFICIENCIES OF PROTEIN C AND PROTEIN S
Deficiencies of protein C and protein S are inherited conditions that cause abnormal blood clotting, according to Medline Plus. Deficiency of protein C occurs in about 1 out of 300 people. Deficiency of protein S affects 1 in 20,000 people. Symptoms for these deficiencies include redness, pain, tenderness or swelling in the affected area. People with these protein deficiencies need to be careful about activities that increase risk of blood clots, such as prolonged sitting, bed rest, and long-time travel in cars and airplanes. Research by A. Hooda published in the "Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology" in 2009 discovered that protein S deficiency causes ischemic stroke.
CACHEXIA
Cachexia is a condition that involves protein deficiency, depletion of skeletal muscle and an increased rate of protein degradation, according to research by D.P. Kotler published in the "Annals of Internal Medicine" in 2000. Cachexia causes weight loss and mortality and is associated with cancer, AIDS, chronic kidney failure, heat disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and rheumatoid arthritis, according to J.E. Morley in the "American Journal of Clinical Nutrition." Patients with malignant cancer of the stomach, colon, liver, billiary tract and pancreas experience undernutrition from reduced intake of protein, calories and micronutrients, and have fatigue and a negative nitrogen balance as a result of loss of muscle mass from cachexia, according to J. Ockenga in "Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics" in 2005.
Classify proteins with reference to their function
The term protein signifies first or foremost and proteins are the most abundant macromolecules in cells and constitute over 50% of dry weight of most of the organisms. Proteins are the instruments by which genetic information is expressed. There are thousands of different proteins in each species of organisms. There are perhaps 10 million of different species. There are twenty amino acids in enough sequences constitute a protein.
Amino acid sequences of different protein enable them to serve their different function. Considering structure shape physiochemical properties of proteins these are classified under different classes and groups. But there are following major classes of proteins according to their biological function.
I. Enzymes (Enzymoproteins):
Those proteins which are highly specialized in their function with catalytic activity are called enzymes. These proteins regulate almost all biological reactions going on inside all living cells. There are about 2000 different enzymes has been recognized; each capable of catalyzing a different kind of biochemical reaction. Without enzymes no life forms are possible.
II. Transport proteins:
Transport proteins are those proteins which help in transportation of life sustaining chemicals vital gases and nutrients. Hemoglobin is a globular protein present in RBC of blood can binds with oxygen when blood passes though longs and distributes oxygen through out the body cells to affect cellular respiration. Blood plasma contains lipoprotein which carries lipids from the liver to other organs.
Other kinds of transport proteins present in cell membrane called carrier proteins which are specially adopted to bind and transport glucose, amino acids and other nutrients across the membrane into the cells.
III. Nutrient and storage proteins:
Storage proteins are those stored inside the cells or tissue as reserved food and can be mobilized at the time of nutrient requirement to provide energy.
The seeds of many store nutrient protein required for the growth of embryonic plant. These include proteins in wheat corn and rice stored in endosperm, ovalbumin (egg white) stored in egg. Casein in milk, Ferritin in animal tissue are the nutrient proteins.
IV. Contractile or motile proteins:
Some proteins endow cells, and organisms with the ability to contract to change the shape or to move about. These proteins includes. Acting and myosin; which are present in form of filamentous protein in muscle cells for functioning in the contractile systems.
Tubulin is another contractile protein present in each cell type inform of micro tubes. Micro tubes are main constituent of cilice and flagella which help in movement of cells.
V. Structural proteins:
Many proteins contribute to serve a supporting filaments, cables or sheets to give biological structures strength and protection. This type of protein form major component of tendons, cartilages and bones. These are fibrous proteins named collagen. Ligaments are contains special structural protein capable of stretching in two dimensions called as elastin. Hairs finger nails, feathers of birds consists of tough insoluble protein named keratin. Major component of silk fibers, threads of spider web contain structural protein named fibroin.
VI. Defense proteins:
Many proteins in body of organisms posses defending action against the invasion and attack of foreign entities or protect the body from injury. Among these proteins special globular protein named immunoglobulin's or antibodies in vertebrate’s body is the most indispensible protein. It synthesized by lymphocytes and they can neutralize the foreign protein produced by bacteria, virus and other harmful microbes called antigens through precipitation or glutination.
Fibrinogen and thrombin are blood proteins belong to this class of proteins which help in blood clotting and protect blood loss from injury and help in repair.
VII. Regulatory proteins:
Some proteins help to regulate cellular or physiological activity. Among them are many hormones, such as insulin; which is a regulatory protein formed in pancreatic tissue help to regulate the blood sugar level.
Growth hormones of pituitary and parathyroid hormones regulate Ca++ and phosphate transport in body. Other proteins called repressors regulate biosynthesis of enzymes.
VIII. Other functional proteins:
There are number of proteins whose functions are not yet specified and are rather exotic. These includes –
Monelin: - A protein of an African plant has an intensely sweet taste and used as non toxic food sweetener for human use.
Antifreeeze: A protein present in blood plasma of Antarctic fisher which protect their blood freezing in ice cold water.
Resillin: A type of protein present in wing hinges of some insects with elastic properties.
Above all proteins can also be divided according to shape as globular protein, fibrous protein, etc on basis of their shape and chromo protein, metal protein glycoprotein, nucleoprotein etc, according to the compounds with which they are found in conjugated form.

Each vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions, and, therefore, most have multiple functions.[5] Vitamin generic descriptor name | Vitamerchemical name(s) (list not complete) | Solubility | Recommended dietary allowances
(male, age 19–70)[6] | Deficiency disease | Upper Intake Level
(UL/day)[6] | Overdose disease | Food sources | Vitamin A | Retinol, retinal, and four carotenoids including beta carotene | Fat | 900 µg | Night-blindness,Hyperkeratosis, andKeratomalacia[7] | 3,000 µg | Hypervitaminosis A | Orange, ripe yellow fruits, leafy vegetables, carrots, pumpkin, squash, spinach, liver, soy milk, milk | Vitamin B1 | Thiamine | Water | 1.2 mg | Beriberi, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome | N/D[8] | Drowsiness or muscle relaxation with large doses.[9] | Pork, oatmeal, brown rice, vegetables, potatoes, liver, eggs | Vitamin B2 | Riboflavin | Water | 1.3 mg | Ariboflavinosis | N/D | | Dairy products, bananas, popcorn, green beans, asparagus | Vitamin B3 | Niacin, niacinamide | Water | 16.0 mg | Pellagra | 35.0 mg | Liver damage (doses > 2g/day)[10] and other problems | Meat, fish, eggs, many vegetables, mushrooms, tree nuts | Vitamin B5 | Pantothenic acid | Water | 5.0 mg[11] | Paresthesia | N/D | Diarrhea; possibly nausea and heartburn.[12] | Meat, broccoli, avocados | Vitamin B6 | Pyridoxine,pyridoxamine,pyridoxal | Water | 1.3–1.7 mg | Anemia[13] peripheral neuropathy. | 100 mg | Impairment of proprioception, nerve damage (doses > 100 mg/day) | Meat, vegetables, tree nuts, bananas | Vitamin B7 | Biotin | Water | 30.0 µg | Dermatitis, enteritis | N/D | | Raw egg yolk, liver, peanuts, certain vegetables | Vitamin B9 | Folic acid, folinic acid | Water | 400 µg | Megaloblastic anemia and Deficiency during pregnancy is associated with birth defects, such asneural tube defects | 1,000 µg | May mask symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency; other effects. | Leafy vegetables, pasta, bread, cereal, liver | Vitamin B12 | Cyanocobalamin,hydroxycobalamin,methylcobalamin | Water | 2.4 µg | Megaloblastic anemia[14] | N/D | Acne-like rash [causality is not conclusively established]. | Meat and other animal products | Vitamin C | Ascorbic acid | Water | 90.0 mg | Scurvy | 2,000 mg | Vitamin C megadosage | Many fruits and vegetables, liver | Vitamin D | Cholecalciferol | Fat | 10 µg[15] | Rickets and Osteomalacia | 50 µg | Hypervitaminosis D | Fish, eggs, liver, mushrooms | Vitamin E | Tocopherols,tocotrienols | Fat | 15.0 mg | Deficiency is very rare; mild hemolytic anemia in newborn infants.[16] | 1,000 mg | Increased congestive heart failure seen in one large randomized study.[17] | Many fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds | Vitamin K | phylloquinone,menaquinones | Fat | 120 µg | Bleeding diathesis | N/D | Increases coagulation in patients taking warfarin.[18] | Leafy green vegetables such as spinach, egg yolks, liver |
Recommended daily amounts (RDAs)
Micro vs milli
Check the letters after the RDA carefully.
One microgram (mcg or µg) is a thousand times smaller than a milligram (mg).
Throughout this factsheet the recommended daily amount (RDA) refers to the EU guidance that is used for nutrition tables on food products.
Nutritional requirements are often slightly different for young children, adolescents, and during pregnancy and breastfeeding.
Ask your doctor or pharmacist if you are concerned about your vitamin intake.
Vitamins
Vitamin A (retinol) properties | Good for | Eyesight, growth, appetite and taste. | Signs of deficiency | Night-blindness | RDA | 800 micrograms | Good sources | Liver, cod liver oil, carrots, green leafy vegetables, egg yolks, enriched margarine, milk products and yellow fruits. | Poisoning | This vitamin is fat-soluble and so is stored in the body for a long time, especially in pregnancy. An overdose may be dangerous. | Destroyed by | Fatty acids. |

Vitamin B1 (thiamine) properties | Good for | Nervous system, digestion, muscles, heart, alcohol-damaged nerve tissues. | Signs of deficiency | Tingling in fingers and toes, confusion, difficulties in maintaining balance, loss of appetite, exhaustion and weakened powers of concentration. | RDA | 1.4mg | Good sources | Liver, yeast, egg yolk, cereal, red meat,nuts and wheatgerm. | Poisoning | No danger. It dissolves in water, so any excess is passed in urine. | Destroyed by | High temperatures, alcohol and coffee. |

Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) properties | Good for | Growth, skin, nails, hair, sensitive lips and tongue, eyesight, the breakdown of protein, fat and carbohydrates. | Signs of deficiency | Itchy irritated eyes, itchy mucous membranes (nose, mouth, throat) and cracked corners of lips. | RDA | 1.6mg | Good sources | Milk, liver, yeast, cheese, green leafy vegetables, fish. | Poisoning | No danger. It dissolves in water, so any excess is passed in urine. | Destroyed by | Alcohol and light (this is why milk-cartons are better than bottles). |

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) properties | Good for | Preventing skin conditions, nerve problems, helps the body absorb protein and carbohydrate. | Signs of deficiency | Skin inflammation. | RDA | 2mg – women taking the contraceptive pill may need more. | Good sources | Fish, bananas, chicken, pork, wholegrains and dried beans. | Poisoning | May cause nerve problems in large doses. Evidence is conflicting about the maximum safe dose, so get medical advice before exceeding the RDA. | Destroyed by | The contraceptive pill, roasted or boiled food, alcohol and oestrogen (the female hormone). |

Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) properties | Good for | Making red blood and the formation of the nerves. | Signs of deficiency | Tiredness and fatigue, tingling and numbness in hands/feet, memory problems and anaemia. | RDA | 1 microgram | Good sources | Eggs, shellfish, poultry, meat,liver, milk, cheese and fortified cereal. | Poisoning | No danger. It dissolves in water, so any excess is passed in urine. | Destroyed by | Water, sunlight, alcohol, oestrogen and sleeping pills. |

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) properties | Good for | Immune defence system, protection from viruses and bacteria, healing wounds, reducing cholesterol, cell lifespan and preventing scurvy. | Signs of deficiency | Tiredness, bleeding gums and slow-healing wounds. | RDA | 60mg | Good sources | Citrus fruits, kiwi fruit, berries, tomatoes, cauliflower, potatoes, green leafy vegetables and peppers. | Poisoning | Large doses can cause diarrhoea and nausea, eg 2g/day . Some scientists have argued that 1000-5000mg per day may damage your DNA. | Destroyed by | Boiling food, light, smoking and heat. |

Vitamin D properties | Good for | Strong bones and teeth. | Signs of deficiency | Unhealthy teeth, osteomalacia (causes weakening of bones), rickets in children. | RDA | 5 micrograms | Good sources | Sunlight (the action of sunlight on the skin allows our bodies to manufacture vitamin D), cod liver oil, sardines, herring, salmon, tuna, milk and milk products. | Poisoning | This vitamin is fat-soluble so can accumulate in the body. Overdoses are dangerous, but there is wide variability in the toxic level, eg 400IU for children. | Destroyed by | Mineral oil. |

Vitamin E (tocopherol) properties | Good for | Fighting toxins – vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant. | Signs of deficiency | Weak muscles and fertility problems. | RDA | 10mg | Good sources | Nuts, soya beans, vegetable oil, broccoli, sprouts, spinach, wholemeal products and eggs. | Poisoning | Potential effect with warfarin increasing risk of bleeding, more than 400IU/day can increase risk of heart failure and death in long term illness. | Destroyed by | Heat, oxygen, frost, iron and chlorine. |

Folic acid properties | Good for | Production of red blood cells. It is essential in the first three months of pregnancy to prevent birth defects such as spina bifida, cleft palate or cleft lip. | Signs of deficiency | Tiredness due to anaemia and red tongue. | RDA | 200 micrograms. Women planning to conceive should take a daily supplement of 400mcg, continued for the first 12 weeks of pregnancy. | Good sources | Carrots, yeast, liver, egg, yolks, melon, apricots, pumpkin, avocado, beans, rye and wholewheat and green leafy vegetables. | Poisoning | No danger. It dissolves in water, so any excess is passed in urine. | Destroyed by | Water, sunlight and heat. |
Minerals
Calcium | Good for | Strong bones and teeth, nerve function, muscle contraction, blood clotting. | Signs of deficiency | Poor teeth and brittle bones. | RDA | 800mg | Good sources | Milk, cheese, butter, yoghurt and green leafy vegetables. | Poisoning | High doses can lead to headaches, stomach pain, high blood pressure and diarrhoea. Excess calcium can be deposited as kidney and gall bladder stones. It has been linked to an increased risk for heart attack in recent research. |

Iron | Good for | Red blood cells and muscle function, white blood cells and the immune system. | Signs of deficiency | Tiredness, irritability, difficulties concentrating. | RDA | 14mg | Good sources | Lean red meat, oily fish, egg yolks, green leafy vegetables, nuts, wholegrains and wholewheat. | Poisoning | Iron is stored in the body and high doses (over 17mg) can lead to constipation, vomiting, nausea and diarrhoea. Very high doses can be fatal. |

Magnesium | Good for | Converting energy from food, cell repair, building strong bones, teeth and muscles and regulating body temperature. | Signs of deficiency | Muscle spasms, and has been associated with heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure and weak bones. | RDA | 300mg | Good sources | Green leafy vegetables, wholegrains and nuts. | Poisoning | High doses can cause diarrhoea. |

Zinc | Good for | Immune system, the breakdown of protein, fat and carbohydrate. | Signs of deficiency | Lesions on skin, eyes and in throat, loss of taste and smell, hair loss, diarrhoea, slow healing of wounds and growth problems in children. | RDA | 15mg | Good sources | Meat, shellfish, milk brown rice and wholegrains. | Poisoning | High doses can lead to stomach cramps, nausea and vomiting, 100mg a day is the current advised maximum daily limit |

Vitamins and Minerals List This vitamins and minerals list tells you what these essential compounds are that we need every single day and which our bodies cannot make. For good weight control you need to be getting all your vitamins and minerals. It's best to get them from food but you may need to supplement. They are essential to life! In the vitamins and minerals list below I have noted the food sources for each, it's function in the body and it's benefits. Water soluble vitamins cannot be stored and are excreted within a few hours to a day. They must be replenished daily. Vitamin C and the B complex vitamins are water soluble vitamins. | | The others are fat soluble vitamins and can be stored, so if you are supplementing it's very important to not take too high a dose. Our bodies cannot digest isolated or synthetic vitamins so our health depends on the body recognizing them as foods. Below are the vitamins on this vitamins and minerals list.
Vitamins
Vit. A - Green and yellow vegetables and fruits, whole milk, fish and animal liver oils, garlic. Powerful antioxidant, protects against cancer, heart disease, stroke and night blindness. Reduces skin and eye disorders. Promotes health of skin and mucous membranes, formation of bones and teeth, night vision. Wrinkle eliminator, lowers cholesterol, slows aging. This is one of the fat soluble vitamins in this vitamins and minerals list.
Vit. D - Egg yolk, sunlight, dairy products, fish liver oils, saltwater fish, dandelion greens, oatmeal, sweet potatoes, liver. Regulates metabolism of calcium and phosphorus. Necessary for growth. Protects against muscle weakness. Prevention and treatment of breast cancer, colon cancer, osteoarthritis, enhances immunity, important for thyroid function and normal blood clotting.
Vit. E - Cold pressed vegetable oils, raw nuts, seeds, whole grains, dark green leafy vegetables, legumes, water cress, soybeans, sweet potatoes, milk, oatmeal, wheat germ. Powerful antioxidant, protects body against free radicals. Important to reduce cancer risks and heart disease. Improves circulation, necessary for tissue repair, promotes normal blood clotting and healing, reduces scarring from some wounds, reduces blood pressure, aids in preventing cataracts, protects against 80 different diseases. Maintains healthy nerves and muscles, skin and hair, can relax leg cramps. This is one of the fat soluble vitamins.
Vit. K - Green vegetables, cauliflower, green leafy vegetables, egg yolks, liver, oatmeal, rye, safflower oil, soybeans, wheat, yogurt. Necessary for blood clotting, bone formation and repair, may help prevent osteoporosis. It plays an important role in the intestines and promotes healthy liver function. Promotes longevity. May increase resistance to infection in children and help prevent cancers that target the inner linings of organs. Not as well known as the other vitamins but needs to be included on this vitamins and minerals list. The best vitamin/mineral supplement is a broad based, balanced formula in a food matrix so you will not be getting too much of any one vitamin or mineral and your body will be able to absorb it. The best vitamins are formulated according to daily dietary requirements. If you eat from all the food groups you are getting most of your vitamins and minerals from food. The vitamin/mineral formula I prefer and recommend has been grown hydroponically through the mustard plant (as seen above.) The mustard plant is grown in a nutrient solution with the vitamins and minerals so that they are absorbed by the plant. Then the mustard plant is made into the vitamin and mineral formula with a technology that preserves it's food matrix. One hundred percent of the vitamins and minerals in the caplet are absorbed. It's the only one I've found which makes this claim. It also has phytonutrients from broccoli, cranberry juice, aloe vera, and grape pomace. It's only $39 and you can order it by calling toll free 1-855-485-5373. NSF certified. GMP - Manufactured in conformance with federally established GMPs. |
Vit. C - Citrus fruit, berries, melon, green vegetables, tomatoes, potatoes. Powerful antioxidant, collagen formation, wound healing, anti-stress hormone support, immune system support, reduces symptoms of asthma, helps to prevent cancer risks and infections, increases absorption of iron, reduces the risk of cataracts. Most of the vitamin C consumed in food is lost in the urine. Need to supplement. Remember this is one of the water soluble vitamins which is eliminated daily.
Vit. B1 Thiamine - Yeast, whole grains, legumes, brown rice, egg yolks, fish, liver,peanuts, peas, poultry. Enhances circulation, assists in blood formation, carbohydrate metabolism, optimizes brain function. Positive effect on energy, growth and learning. All the B vitamins are the water soluble vitamins on this vitamins and minerals list. They need to be consumed every day.
Vit. B2 Riboflavin - Cheese, egg yolks, fish, legumes, meat, milk, poultry, spinach, whole grains, yogurt. Necessary for red blood formation, antibody production, cell growth. All the B vitamins are listed on this vitamins and minerals list.
Vit. B3 Niacin - Beef liver, brewer's yeast, broccoli, carrots, cheese, corn flour, dandelion greens, tomatoes, fish, eggs, potatoes, wheat germ, whole wheat, carrots. Needed for circulation and healthy skin. Supports healthy nervous system, the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and digestion.
Vit. B5 Pantothenic Acid - Beef, brewer's yeast, eggs, fresh vegetables, legumes, mushrooms, raw nuts, wholewheat, seafood. The anti-stress vitamin, supports adrenal glands, required by all cells, supports neurotransmitters, gastrointesinal tract, helpful in treating depression and anxiety. All the B vitamins on this vitamins and minerals list need to be included in a broad based vitamin and mineral formula. They work in consort with other vitamins and minerals and food.
Vit. B6 Pyridoxine - Brewer's yeast, carrots, chicken, eggs, fish, meat, peas, spinach, sunflower seeds, walnuts and wheat germ. Promotes red blood cell formation, required by nervous system, normal brain function, production of hydrochloric acid and absorption of fats and protein. Maintains sodium and potassium balance, normal cellular growth, supports enzymes and immune system function.
Vit. B12 Cyanocobalamin - Brewer's yeast, clams, eggs, herring, kidney, beef liver, mackerel, dairy products, seafood, sea vegetables, soy products. Prevents anemia, aids folic acid in regulating the formation of red blood cells, helps in utilization of iron. Required for digestion, absorption of foods, cell formation, synthesis of protein and metabolism of carbohydrates and fats, prevents nerve damage, maintains myelin sheaths that protect nerve endings, supports memory, learning, enhances sleep. This is the most difficult vitamin for vegans and vegetarians to get so an important one for any vitamins and minerals list and to include in a formula.
Biotin - Brewer's yeast, egg yolks, meat, milk, poultry, seafood, wholegrains, soybeans. Aids in cell growth, fatty acid production, metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, healthy hair and skin, nerve tissue and bone marrow. Helps to relieve muscle pain.
Choline - Lecithin, egg yolks, meat, milk, legumes, soybeans, whole grain cereals. Needed for nervous system, gallbladder regulation, liver function, hormone production, proper brain function and memory. A vitamins and minerals list must include choline.
Folate Asparagus, barley, beef, bran, brewer's yeast, brown rice, cheese, chicken, dates, green leafy vegetbles, lamb, legumes, lentils, liver, milk, mushrooms, oranges, split peas, root vegetables, salmon, tuna, wheat germ, whole grains and whole wheat. Brain food, energy production and formation of red blood cells. Strengthens immunity by supporting function of white blood cells, may help with depression and anxiety, supports healthy cell division and replication.
Minerals
This vitamins and minerals list includes the minerals that are essential for the formation of blood and bones, healthy nerve function, the regulation of muscle tone and the composition of body fluids. They work as vitamins do, with enzymes, enabling the body to perform all of it's functions. It is especially important that the minerals you take are plant sourced because they are derived from rocks and salts. If it has not been already made into food will your body know how to use it? Once upon a time, our soils were rich with minerals but since the introduction of industrialized farming the soils have become quite depleted of minerals.
Calcium - Dairy products, stinging nettle, salmon, sardines, seafood, green leafy vegetables, broccoli, kale, almonds, asparagus, brewer's yeast, figs, cabbage, kelp, oats, prunes, sesame seeds, soy products, watercress, whey and yogurt. It is vital for strong bones, teeth and gums. Lowers cholesterol and helps prevent cardiovascular disease. Women often need a little more calcium than is included in a balanced formula. Middle aged women need to be getting at least 1500 mg. a day. Look for the vitamins and minerals list on the bottle.
Phosphorus - Asparagus, bran, brewer's yeast, corn, dairy products, eggs, fish, dried fruit, garlic, legumes, raw nuts, seeds, meats, poultry, salmon and whole grains. Necessary for blood clotting, bone and tooth formation, cell growth, contraction of the heart muscle, normal heart rhythm and kidney function. One of the macrominerals on this vitamins and minerals list. |
Magnesium - Found in most foods. It's a catalyst in enzyme activity especially for energy production. Important for calcium and potassium uptake. Promotes nerve and muscle transmission, helps prevent depression, dizziness, muscle weakness and PMS. One of the macrominerals from this vitamins and minerals list that needs to be in your balanced formula.
Iron - Eggs, fish, liver, meat, poultry, green leafy vegetables, whole grains. Production of hemoglobin and myoglobin and the oxygenation of red blood cells. Needed for enzymes and important for growth. Iron is stored in the blood so supplementation is not necessary unless you are anemic.
Iodine - Iodized salt, seafood, kelp. Needed only in trace amounts, helps to metabolize excess fat and important for physical and mental development.
Zinc - Brewer's yeast, dulse, egg yolks, fish, kelp, lamb, legumes, lima beans, liver, meats, mushrooms, oyster, pecans, poultry, pumpkin seeds, sardines, seafood, soy lecithin, soybeans, sunflower seeds, whole grains. Essential mineral important in prostate gland function and growth of the reproductive organs. Do not take more than 100 mg. a day in a broad based vitamin/mineral complex as it is a trace mineral on this vitamins and minerals list.
Copper - Almonds, avocados, barley, beans, beets, broccoli, garlic, lentils, liver, mushrooms, raw nuts, oats, oranges, pecans, radishes, raisins, salmon, seafood, green leafy vegetables, soybeans. Aids in formation of bone, hemoglobin and red blood cells and works in balance with zinc and vitamin C to form elastin, a skin protein. Needed for healthy nerves and joints, healing, energy, taste sensitivity, hair and skin coloring. An important trace mineral from the vitamins and minerals list.
Manganese - Avocados, raw nuts, seeds, seaweed, and whole grains. Minute quantities needed for protein and fat metabolism, healthy nerves, a healthy immune system and blood sugar regulation.
Chromium - Beer, brewer's yeast, brown rice, cheese, meat, whole grains. Needed for energy and the synthesis of cholesterol, fats and proteins. Maintains stable blood sugar levels so very important for diabetics and those of us wanting to maintain a healthy weight. It is a trace mineral on the vitamins and minerals list.
Selenium - Meat, grains, depending on the content of the soil where food is raised. American farmlands deficient. Brazil nuts, brewer's yeast, broccoli, brown rice, chicken, dairy, dulse, garlic, kelp, liver, onions, salmon, seafood, tuna, vegetables, wheat germ, whole grains. Inhibits the oxidation of lipids as a component of enzyme glutathione peroxidase. Vital antioxidant especially when combined with vitamin E. Prevents formation of free radicals. It is a trace mineral from the vitamins and minerals list which means you only need minute amounts.
Molybdenum - Beans, beef liver, cereal grains, dark green leafy vegetables, legumes, peas. Extremely small amounts needed for nitrogen metabolism, aids in conversion of purines to uric acid and promotes normal cell function. Do not take over 15 mg. a day. This is another trace mineral.
Potassium - Dairy foods, fish, fruit, legumes, meat, poultry, vegetables, whole grains, garlic, raw nuts, dulse, lima beans, avocados. Important for healthy nervous system and a regular heart rhythm. Helps prevent stroke, aids in proper muscle contraction and works with sodium to control body's water balance. This is a macromineral from the vitamins and minerals list which means we need potassium in larger amounts.
Sodium - All foods contain some sodium. Necessary for maintaining proper water balance and blood pH. Needed for stomach, nerve and muscle function. Sodium is a macromineral on the vitamins and minerals list.
Boron - Apples, carrots, grapes, dark green leafy vegetables, raw nuts, pears, whole grains. Trace amounts necessary for healthy bones and muscle growth, metabolism of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium. It enhances brain function, promotes alertness and plays a role in how the body utilizes energy from fats and sugars. It is a trace mineral.
Germanium - Found in all organic, plant and animal material. High amounts in broccoli, celery, garlic, shitake mushrooms, milk, onions, rhubarb, sauerkraut, tomato juice, aloe vera. Improves cellular oxygenation. Helps to fight pain, keep the immune system functioning and rids the body of toxins. It is a trace mineral.
Silicon - Alfalfa, beets, brown rice, bell peppers, soybeans, leafy green vegetables and whole grains. Necessary for the formation of collagen for bones and connective tissues.It is a trace mineral that needs to be included on any vitamins and minerals list.
Sulfur - Brussels sprouts, dried beans, cabbage, eggs, fish, garlic, kale, meats, onions, soybeans, turnips and wheat germ. Disinfects the blood, helps the body to resist bacteria and protects the protoplasm of cells. It is a trace mineral.
Vanadium - Dill, fish, olives, meat, radishes, snap beans, vegetable oils and whole grains. Needed for cellular metabolism and formation of bones and teeth. Plays a role in growth and reproduction and inhibits cholesterol synthesis. Improves glucose tolerance because it supports insulin utilization. It is a trace mineral. | This vitamins and minerals list includes all vitamins and minerals including the macrominerals, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium and phosphorus. The other minerals are called the trace minerals because they are only needed in very minute amounts. They are still important for good health: boron, chromium, copper, germanium, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, silicon, sulfur, vanadium and zinc. When your body is nourished with all the basic nutrients it needs it will be far easier to lose weight. When you buy vitamins especially online vitamins, pay attention to how they are processed. Natural vitamins and minerals that are in a food matrix will be formulated with food and bonded in with proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and bioflavonoids. Synthetic vitamins are formulated in laboratories and made up of individual chemicals. The natural, food sourced vitamins/minerals will be absorbed and utilized by your body while the synthetic ones will mostly be eliminated.
You will be amazed at what a difference it makes in how you feel when you are getting all the nutrition you need from this vitamins and minerals list. Learn about the nutrition in fruits and vegetables too. Approaching your fat loss nutritionally and with low glycemic eating means permanent weight loss!
Fast food nutrition should make up a minimal part of a healthy diet. Fast foods and junk foods are high in fat, sodium and sugar, which can lead to obesity and a range of attendant health problems, including diabetes, heart disease and arthritis. Here are the facts about how excessive junk food consumption affects your body.
Junk Food Affects Your Energy Levels
Junk food doesn't contain the nutrients your body needs to stay healthy. As a result, you may feel chronically fatigued and lack the energy you need to complete daily tasks. The high levels of sugar in junk food puts your metabolism under stress; when you eat refined sugar, your pancreas secretes high amounts of insulin to prevent a dangerous spike in blood sugar levels.
Because fast food and junk food don't contain adequate amounts of protein and good carbohydrates, your blood sugar levels will drop suddenly after eating, leaving you feeling grumpy, fatigued and craving sugar.
Junk Food Contributes to Poor Performance and Obesity
Junk food contains large amounts of fat, and as fat accumulates in your body, you'll gain weight and could become obese. The more weight you gain, the more you'll be at risk for serious chronic illnesses such as diabetes, heart disease and arthritis. You could even have a heart attack.
The high levels of fat and sodium in junk food can cause high blood pressure or hypertension. Excessive dietary sodium can also have a negative effect on renal function, even leading to kidney disease.
In the short term, high levels of dietary fat lead to poor cognitive performance. You'll feel tired and have trouble concentrating because your body might not be getting enough oxygen.
Junk Food Can Damage Your Liver and Your Heart
The high levels of fat and sodium in junk food and fast food can contribute to heart disease by raising blood cholesterol levels and contributing to arterial plaque build up. The high levels of trans fatty acids found in many junk foods and fast foods can lead to fatty liver deposits, which, over time, can cause liver dysfunction and disease.
Junk Food Can Lead to Diabetes
Over time, the high levels of sugar and simple carbohydrates in junk food can lead to type 2 diabetes. This occurs because eating too much sugar puts your metabolism under stress; when you eat a lot of refined white sugar and simple carbohydrates,your body has to pump up insulin production to prevent a dangerous spike in blood sugar levels.
Because junk food doesn't contain the protein or complex carbohydrates that your body needs to maintain consistent blood sugar levels, your blood sugar levels will drop suddenly soon after eating. You'll crave sugar and likely end up eating morejunk food.
Over time, this stress damages your body's ability to use the insulin secreted by your pancrease. A healthy diet can help maintain your body's insulin sensitivity.
Even in the short term, eating too much junk food can make you feel really uncomfortable. It can lead to mood swings and constipation, and lower your energy levels so that you lack interest in the exercise you need to burn off th
Junk food is the name given to the food that maintains a low in nutrition and a high in the amounts of harmful ingredients. Most of us are aware of the ill effects of the junk food yet; fail to get over the habit of consuming junk food. It is the number of calories and the huge amounts of detrimental substances present in the junk food that are responsible for the increase of the high triglyceride levels.
Some junk food facts
The nutrients like vitamins and minerals are too less in junk food while the amount of calories are more. The enormous amount of oxychlolesterol, in these high cholesterol foods encourages the levels of high triglycerides and hence in the level of bad fats. The artificial flavors added for the children also play their part in having a negative effect on the health which has a sugar content that is twice the amount of those added in that of the adult food. There are copious levels of sugar in the junk food which sooner or later it may take a huge toll on your health.
A single soda for instance contains about ten teaspoons of sugar that may instantly raise the amount of calories in the body. Apart from colas, the cookies, desserts and chocolates have also been acknowledged as having huge amounts of sugar. The presence of hydrogenated oils and the trans fats present in the junk food such as candy bars, cookies and fried foods make the junk food all the more threatening. The salts that are added to augment the piquancy of the food are also equally harmful.

Unhelpful Effects of Junk Food * Obesity is the most common effect of regular consumption of junk food. This effect takes place pretty fast in children as the junk food meant for them has more calories. The sugars in the colas and sodas and the hydrogenated oils in fried foods are highly responsible for the fat amassment therefore in high triglyceride levels in the body. This in turn leads to the congestion in the arteries making it difficult for the free flow of blood through them, eventually leading to conditions like heart attack. * A high blood pressure is the subsequently possible baleful upshot of relishing thejunk food. This effect can be attributed to the presence of the sodium that is added to the food. * The outcome of obesity caused by excessive consumption of junk food is lethargy which lulls the body and makes you lead a sedentary lifestyle thus bringing in the possibility of other harmful effects for health. * It is also credible that you can develop a liver failure as the result of the obesity-causing cholesterol and diabetes-causing sugars.
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Side effects of junk foods
In today’s life junk foods are very appealing because of two “T”s: Time & Taste.
These are easy to prepare and most of them are available in market as ready to eat. Secondly, they have great taste as well. On top of these two factors, the third motivating factor is the advertising done by junk food vendors.
Let’s have a quick look of other side of the coin. Do your know how harmful are these junk foods? Here is a list of few good reasons to cut down the intake of junk foods: * Junk foods contain much of sugar. So, eating junk food can make you prone to diabetes. You can also become susceptible to heart disease and blood pressure because of the salt and high fats found in this kind of food. * Junk food makes you put on weight. Generally, people who have obesity or morbid obesity are those who have a preference for junk food and snacking. * Packed junk food contains preservatives and colouring, both of which contain carcinogenic substances which are harmful for your body system specially cardiovascular system. * Junk food is made using a lot of saturated fats. Such fats are unhealthy and on digestion can release a lot of toxins into your body. You body gets food but not healthy food. * Junk foods also fastens the effects of aging. Continuous eating of junk food exposes the body to long periods of bad nutrition. The result is release of free radicals which are the chief factors responsible for aging effect. * Junk food is sometime made using ingredients that are not very clean. This can in the long run spoil your stomach, liver and intestines. * Most of the junk foods does not contain vitamins and minerals and much of the nutrients seen in properly cooked food and in raw food. The body is not getting the necessary vitamins and minerals necessary to have good health and immunity from diseases. Consequently, it makes the person having such food very prone to illnesses. * In short summary, I can conclude that excessive intake of junk foods can lead to * Lack of Energy * Poor Concentration * Heart Diseases * High Cholesterol
Our bodies have enough stamina to take care off occasional junk food eating. But, the lure is strong enough to get you addicted. unk food can be appealing for a variety of reasons, including convenience, price and taste. For children, who do not always understand the health consequences of their eating habits, junk food may appear especially appetizing. However, regularly consuming fattening junk food can be addictive for children and lead to complications like obesity, chronic illness, low self-esteem and even depression, as well as affecting how they perform in school and extracurricular activities.
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Energy and Focus
According to the Women’s and Children’s Health Network, diet has a significant effect on children’s study habits. Junk food and foods with high sugar content deplete energy levels and the ability to concentrate for extended periods of time. Energy and focus are especially crucial for school-age children. Children set the foundation for lifelong habits in their youth, making junk food particularly hazardous to their well-rounded development. Physical activity is also essential for children of all ages, and regularly eating junk food does not provide the necessary nutrients children need for sufficient energy to engage in physical activity. A lack of physical activity is harmful to physical and mental well being and may also exclude a child from critical social development.
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Obesity Risk
A study published in “Pediatrics” in 2004 found fast-food consumption in children was linked with many dangerous precursors for obesity. According to this study, kids who ate fast food were more likely to consume a higher amount of calories, fat, carbohydrates and added sugars in one fast food meal. They were also less likely to consume as much fiber, milk and fruits and vegetables as children who did not eat fast food. Children who consumed more fattening foods while eating fast food were also likely, in general, to eat more unhealthy foods at other meals. According to a statement released by the journal “Nature Neuroscience” in 2010, high-calorie food can be addictive, causing children who occasionally eat fast food to learn problematic patterns of eating. These factors were found to place children who regularly ate fast food at increased risk for obesity.
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Chronic Illness
According to the Prevention Institute, experts blame junk food for rising rates of diabetes, high blood pressure and stroke. Increasing rates of chronic illness affect children who regularly consume junk food. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention predicts if current trends continue, one in three U.S. adults will have diabetes by the year 2050. Diabetes can result in disability and premature death. The Center for Food Safety noted in 2012 that obese children are also more likely to develop high cholesterol and heart disease later in life. According to the Women’s and Children’s Health Network, changes can happen in children’s bodies even when they’re young that are associated with disease at a more advanced age.
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Self-Esteem and Depression
Self-esteem and confidence in oneself are especially important to growing children, and regularly consuming junk food can negatively impact this sense of self. According to “Kids Health Club” magazine, junk food can affect a child’s physical development in detrimental ways, including unhealthy weight gain, which can result in self-esteem problems. Low self-esteem can lead to consequences like depression. Nutritionists at MayoClinic.com also report eating junk food can potentially cause depression on its own. According to the journal “American Family Physician,” depression -- which can be very dangerous for children -- has negative impacts on growth and development, performance in school and social relationships and can ultimately lead to suicide.
Answer:
The effect of junk foods is two fold- you're consuming something "negative" that's high in saturated and trans-fat, sodium, cholesterol, processed sugars and empty calories while replacing something that would have provided nutrients that could have benefitted you. So the junk food could be contributing to poor cholesterol levels, high blood pressure and increased insulin sensitivity, while increasing your risk for a heart attack, stroke, and diabetes, among others. If you also consider that most junk food is calorically-dense (that is, a very small amount contains a very large number of calories), junk food would also contribute to obesity and related health complications. At the same time, you've missed out on the benefits of fruits, vegetables, lean protein and whole grains that you would have otherwise eaten, increasing your risk for cancer, along with missing the opportunity to help your cholesterol levels, blood pressure and the like, further increasing your risk for heart attack, stroke and diabetes. st food is part of the American lifestyle. One in four adults reported eating fast food in a study published in the April 2004 issue of the “Journal of the American College of Nutrition.” But eating too much fast food can have health consequences. A number of studies have linked fast food to health problems, including an increased risk of obesity, poor nutrition, diabetes, heart disease and stroke. It’s wise to limit consumption of fast food to reduce the health risks.
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Higher Risk of Obesity
In a large study funded by the National Institutes of Health and published in the January 2005 issue of “Lancet,” young adults who consumed fast food more than twice a week gained 10 more pounds than those who had fast food less than once a week. The study in the April 2004 issue of the “Journal of American College of Nutrition” found that adults ages 20 and older who frequently ate fast food had higher body mass indexes than those who consumed fast food less frequently. A small order of fries and a large hamburger at a fast food outlet has about 800 calories, and sweetened soft drinks, which are often sold with fast food meals, have been linked to obesity in several studies.
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Higher Risk of Poor Nutrition
Data from more than 17,000 adults and children analyzed and published in the October 2003 issue of the “Journal of the American Dietetic Association” showed that those who frequently consumed fast food had lower intakes of vitamins A and C, dietary fiber, milk and fruits and vegetables than subjects who didn’t eat fast food. The fast-food eaters also had higher intakes of calories, saturated fat and sodium than the other subjects. Consumption of carbonated soft drinks was more than double for the frequent fast food eaters, who also consumed more than twice the amount of fried potatoes as those who didn’t eat fast food. Filling up on fat-laden fast food and sugary soft drinks leaves little room for more nutritious fare that supports good health.
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Higher Risk of Diabetes and Stroke
Eating fast food more than twice a week doubled the incidence of insulin resistance, a risk factor for diabetes, in the 2005 study published in “Lancet,” and a 2010 Harvard report linked sweetened soft drinks with an increased risk of Type 2 diabetes and heart disease. Additionally, the risk of stroke may be related to the number of fast food restaurants in a neighborhood, according to a study published in the “Annals of Neurology” in 2009. The study found the risk of stroke increased by 1 percent for every fast food restaurant in a Texas neighborhood. Fast food is loaded with sodium, which increases the risk of high blood pressure and stroke.
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Tips
To reduce fast food health risks, the American Heart Association recommends visiting the websites of fast food chains to identify the healthiest choices and avoiding super-sizing your order, which increases the amount of fat, sodium, sugar and calories you’ll consume. A grilled chicken sandwich is a good choice – the American Heart Association says it will be leaner than the meat used in most burgers. Skip deep-fried sides, such as fries, and order a small salad; drink water, low-fat milk or diet soda instead of sweetened soft drinks. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics noted in 2012 that fast food menus are becoming healthier and more varied, so choose fast food carefully.
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