...great deal of attention from comparativists. In this article, we will address the following topics: • The Concept of Revolution • Why Revolutions Happen? • Can Revolutions be Predicted? • What Do Revolutions Accomplish? • What Are some of the Failures of Revolutions? • Comparing Characteristics and Outcomes of Some Revolutions • Questions The Concept of Revolution: According to the American philosopher Richard Rorty "revolution," like such other words as "reason," "democracy," and "socialism" is a "thick word" which can be contrasted with such "thin words" as truth, dialogue, and justice. How do we define a "revolution?" How are revolutions distinct from other forms of political change such as Coup d'état, rebellion, mutiny, insurrection, or uprising? All of the above nouns may denote acts of violence aimed at changing or overthrowing an existing order or authority. However, there are important legal and political differences among them as well. Coups d'état is a sudden seizure of state power by a small faction that does not necessarily change the social system. It can be regarded as a "palace revolution." Insurrection (or uprising) refers to popular revolts that are limited or can be viewed as a dress rehearsal for a more extensive rebellion. Mutiny is revolt against constituted authority. For example we...
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...been debated as the beginning concept of “modern history.” This concept is derived from how the French Revolution demonstrated the will of the citizens as a political entity that could dictate governmental change by showing how the people, not the monarchy, could reform a nation. Through the establishment of a new government by the people, new institutions and policies were developed that the world we live as modern; such innovations included a system of power based on wealth and status instead of birth, and a new state bureaucracy. The ideas that drove the revolution came from the innovative thinkers of the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment, and inspired the people of France to question those who reigned over them. While the events of the French Revolution transformed France, the reign of Napoleon turned the revolution into a European event by sparking revolution in countries that had not already. Napoleon’s conquests helped spread the mind set created in the French Revolution around Europe. The French Revolution marked the beginning of “modern history,” because the revolutionary ideas that it created sparked the creation of citizen-governed nations across Europe. One of the aspects of the French Revolution that helped establish the modern idea of country as a nation governed by its citizens was the establishment of the “people as sovereign now legitimate political power.” The essence of the revolution was creating a system that unified its citizens for the common good...
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...reconstruction of Germany to the Cold War, the Soviet Union’s actions affected the world second only to the United States. While the second global economy is loosely defined as the era between the years of 1971 and 1998, the seeds of this time period were planted shortly after the end of World War II in the European theatre. Following the fall of Nazi Germany, the United States devised the Marshall Plan to rebuild the economies of war-devastated countries. As a world power, the United States believed it was their duty to prevent another world war. The Soviet Union agreed with the sentiment, but not with the approach the western nations took. To prevent the rise of authoritarian governments, the United States promoted democracies, constitutional rule, and capitalism. The Soviet Union, an authoritarian government, advanced their communist ideas to counter the Truman Doctrine. The result of the opposing ideologies was a strained relationship between the two influencers of the modern world, and the initiation of the Cold War. The Soviet Union was focused on spreading their political ideology for one reason: Protection (Service 2). While most of the world considers the establishment of communist regimes as Soviet expansion, the Soviet Union created a buffer zone. In essence, the surrounding nations would provide more time for the Soviet Union to prepare while opposing troops invaded these “satellite states.” During this time, the United States decided that in order to prevent nations...
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...In a way, communism is an extreme form of socialism. Many countries have dominant socialist political parties but very few are truly communist. In fact, most countries - including staunch capitalist bastions like the U.S. and U.K. - have government programs that borrow from socialist principles. "Socialism" is sometimes used interchangeably with "communism" but the two philosophies have some stark differences. Most notably, while communism is a political system, socialism is primarily an economic system that can exist in various forms under a wide range of political systems. Comparison chart | |Communism |Socialism | |Philosophy |From each according to his ability, to each according to |From each according to his ability, to each according to| | |his needs. Free-access to the articles of consumption is |his contribution. Emphasis on profit being distributed | | |made possible by advances in technology that allow for |among the society or workforce to complement individual | | |super-abundance. |wages/salaries. | |Economic System |The means of production are held in common, negating the |The means of production are owned by public enterprises | | |concept of ownership in...
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...uncovers abuses and maltreatment of tribe’s people in the Belgian Congo. 1910: Japan annexes Korea. 1914: 28th June: The heir to the Austro-Hungarian is assassinated. 28th July: Austria bombards Belgrade, with the opening shots of WW1. 4th August: All major European powers at war. Political Ideologies: Socialism: • Developed in the 19th century as a result of industrial revolution. • Based on enlightenment assumptions: 1. Mankind was basically good. 2. Problems of society could be remedied. 3. A gov’t owes a duty to its citizens. • Marxism was the most important form of socialism • Means of producing and distributing goods is owned collectively or by a centralized government. Anarchism: • This is a radical form of socialism, developed in the 19th century. • Never very powerful, or popular. • Anarchism is based on three principals; 1. People are born good but corrupted by society. 2. All social institutions must be destroyed before a sound socialist...
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...Labor Unions in the United States Posted Mon, 2010-02-01 17:21 by Anonymous Gerald Friedman, University of Massachusetts at Amherst Unions and Collective Action In capitalist labor markets, which developed in the nineteenth-century in the United States and Western Europe, workers exchange their time and effort for wages. But even while laboring under the supervision of others, wage earners have never been slaves, because they have recourse from abuse. They can quit to seek better employment. Or they are free to join with others to take collective action, forming political movements or labor unions. By the end of the nineteenth century, labor unions and labor-oriented political parties had become major forces influencing wages and working conditions. This article explores the nature and development of labor unions in the United States. It reviews the growth and recent decline of the American labor movement and makes comparisons with the experience of foreign labor unions to clarify particular aspects of the history of labor unions in the United States. Unions and the Free-Rider Problem Quitting, exit, is straightforward, a simple act for individuals unhappy with their employment. By contrast, collective action, such as forming a labor union, is always difficult because it requires that individuals commit themselves to produce "public goods" enjoyed by all, including those who "free ride" rather than contribute to the group effort. If the union succeeds, free riders...
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...John Jackson Professor Orgala March 22, 2014 AFAM-101 The Negative Political and Economic Impacts of Colonialism on Africa In October 1884, Otto von Bismarck, the German Chancellor, summoned European countries to a conference in Berlin, Germany. At the conference diplomats from Europe and America signed the Berlin Convention, which ultimately ended the Berlin Conference. This conference was created to diminish intensifying colonial struggles in Africa. This conference effectively established the boundaries of European powers. The signing of the Berlin Conference led to the scramble for Africa, which is defined as “efforts to fully occupy” portions of Africa that remained independent. With the exception of a couple countries the continent of Africa became controlled by seven European powers, including: Belgium, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, and Spain. After European powers possessed control over the continent, they began to transform African society and its politics. The reason I have for choosing this topic is that a thorough understanding of colonialism in Africa is key to comprehend the obstacles that the continent of Africa and it’s leaders have to face to lead their countries into prosperity (Schraeder). Peter J. Schraeder, author of the book African Politics and Society: A Mosaic in Transformation, credits the spread of the Roman Empire as the precursor to European colonialism. The Roman Empire’s spread to Africa started in 146 B.C. when the city...
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...30,000 votes away from the leading party. For the past twenty years the Freedom Party of Austria (FPO) has become one of Austria’s most influential, and controversial, political parties. Its strong anti-immigration stance, xenophobic rhetoric, and suspected anti-Semitism have garnered international attention since its creation. Even though this right-wing populism phenomenon of Austria has become one of many cases in Europe, the sheer scale of FPO involvement in the country makes it a unique study. Ruud Koopmans explored the emergence of the extreme right in an attempt to define the causes of it. He compared two contrasting theories in his analysis. Grievance, demand side, theories suggest that growing rightist populism is a direct result of an increasing discontent and xenophobia within a country due to immigration and the consequences of it. Opportunity, supply side, theories focus on the institutional attributes of a particular polity, and how these arrangements make it possible for the right-wing movement to not only start, but flourish as well. He concluded that opportunity theories best explain the rightist movement. However, others believe that one cannot exist without the other; supply-side is tandem to demand-side. Wouter can der Brug wrote, “We agree with Koopmans that grievances do not exist without discourse. But the reverse is also true: Without grievances political entrepreneurs will not be able to successfully mobilize public support for claims regarding...
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...Chapter 6 The media, government accountability, and citizen engagement Katrin Voltmer The past two decades or so have seen an unprecedented spread of democracy around the globe. With the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989 and the end of the Cold War, the ‘third wave’ of democratization, which started in the early seventies, now encompasses countries in Asia and Africa.1 And even in states whose governments continue to resist a more open and participatory form of governance, such as North Korea, Burma or Zimbabwe, the idea of democracy is a powerful force that inspires people to take on a more active role in public life. However, many of the newly emerging democracies seem to fall short of some, often many, of the basic standards that define democratic rule, with irregular voting procedures, corruption, inefficiency and autocratic styles of government being but a few of the maladies. In addition, as many of the newly emerging democracies belong to the developing world, inequality and poverty remain severe obstacles to full self‐determination of the people. The experiences of the past decades have shown that democracy is not a one‐way road and that a viable democracy requires more than the implementation of the key institutions of government. Rather, an accountable and efficient government is embedded in a complex web of interdependent conditions that ...
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...1976-2010………………………………………………………142 Conclusions Introduction: Globalization and Anti-Hegemonic Party State In 1997 the European Commission defined Globalization “as the process by which markets and production in different countries are becoming increasingly interdependent due to the dynamics of trade in goods and services and flows of capital and technology. It is not a new phenomenon but the continuation of developments that have been in train for some considerable time”.[1] Wider definitions incorporate more spheres than the economy, including the intensification of worldwide social, political, and cultural relations as well while stressing their growing extensity, intensity, velocity, and depth.[2] A working definition attempting to integrate the most outstanding features...
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...characteristics of the Czech-speaking inhabitants of the Czech Republic, which includes Bohemia; the larger western part. The republic is bounded by Poland on the north, Germany on the northwest and southwest, Austria on the south, and the Slovak Republic on the east. The crowning of the first Bohemian king took place in 1085. And the first university in central Europe was founded in Prague in 1348. The development of Czech national culture came to a temporary halt in 1620, when the Czech's social classes possessing political rights were defeated in the Battle of White Mountain. The Bohemian kingdom lost its independence, and its provinces were declared the hereditary property of the Hapsburgs. A period referred to as "the darkness" lasted until the end of the eighteenth century, when the Czech national revival the formation of the modern Czech nation began. The area of today’s Czech Republic used to be an industrial Centre of the Austro Hungarian Empire and one of the most economically developed regions in Europe at the beginning of the last century. After Czechoslovakia, an independent state of Czechs and Slovaks was established in 1918. The country’s economy was among the 10 most advanced economies in the world in only 20 years of the state’s existence. Czechoslovakia was one of the world’s leading...
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...including the creation of new leadingpositions.Secondly,democraticvaluesaremoreclearlydefinedandrolesof theEuropeanand national parliaments are reinforced. Thirdly, the LT has attempted to improve citizen’s rights, for example by the new citizens’ initiatives, as well as by making the Charter of Fundamental Rights legally binding. Fourthly, the LT has introduced several political changes, including more cooperation on the common foreign and security policy and how to combat external threats as a global actor with a single voice. Moreover, this essay considers how the LT differs from the Constitutional Treaty, arguing that although no longer a formal constitution, it does maintain constitutional elements. It then looks at some specific issues; in particular, whether legitimacy, transparency and accountability have been improved, and takes the view that while this is the case to some extent, there remains much room to f urther improve. Finally, it also f ocuses on the EU’s future outlook in the light of the Lisbon Treaty’s amendments, arguing from an intergovernmentalist standpoint, as Member States seek EU cooperation in their own national interests. After the much criticized Treaty of Nice, the Convention on the “Future of Europe” held in March 2001, followed by the Laeken Declaration in December 2001 marked the beginning of the big debate on European...
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...CONSERVATISM Key concepts 1) Hierarchy and organic society * The term ‘organic society’ refers to a belief, which became entrenched in traditional conservative thought in the latter part of the 19th century. * It was a reaction against the rise of liberal individualism. * It proposes that society is more than merely a collection of individuals, but it is a single entity. * We are connected to each other through our humanity and common membership of community. * Organic society is seen as a reality, which is superior to our own, individual interests. * The ideal organic society – where goals and aspirations of individuals coincide with the goals of the whole society. 1980s – Margaret Thatcher famously challenged this remarking that there “is no such thing as society”, implying that the goals of individuals are superior to those of society as a whole. * Traditional conservatives believe that there is a ‘natural’ order into which each individual fits. * It is normal and natural that society should be divided by a number of strata. * The very rigid feudal system had long since disappeared, but there remained a belief that some kind of class system was inevitable. * Hierarchy like this supports organic society in that it creates an order and stability, which the individualistic society lacks. * Different parts of the hierarchy have different roles that complement each other. * This implies inequality, but an ordered inequality, and one in which...
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...authors have argued - economic policies, geography, culture, or value systems – but rather institutions, more precisely the political institutions that determine economic institutions. Acemoglu and Robinson theorize that political institutions can be divided into two kinds - “extractive” institutions in which a “small” group of individuals do their best to exploit - in the sense of Marx - the rest of the population, and “inclusive” institutions in which “many” people are included in the process of governing hence the exploitation process is either attenuated or absent. Needless to say Acemoglu and Robinson’s theory is more subtle than this simple summary. They argue that for any economic success political institutions must be sufficiently centralized to provide basic public services including justice, the enforcement of contracts, and education. Given that these functions are carried out, inclusive institutions enable innovative energies to emerge and lead to continuing growth as exemplified by the Industrial Revolution. Extractive institutions can also deliver growth but only when the economy is distant from the technological frontier. These extractive institutions will ultimately fail, however, when innovations and “creative destruction” are needed to push the frontier. Hence, while success may be possible for a while under extractive institutions...
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...out what economic institutions are, why they are matte, what are the reasons behind different institutions in different countries and finally support it with historical facts. 1 Links between economic growth and economic institution What are institutions? The term “Economic institutions” can be defined in mach different way and have multiple meanings. On the one hand North (1990, p.3 ) defines institutions in a general wide way as “ the rules of the game in a society, or more formally, are the humanly devised constants that shape human interaction… In consequence they structure incentives in human exchange, whether political, social, or economic”. Hadgson (2004, p. 655) explains economic institutions as “ durable systems of established and embedded social rules that...
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