...Discussion Looking at statistics I found out In 2008, coverage of the UK's cervical cancer screening programme fell below 80% for the first time in the 20 years since the call recall system began the 80s, but attendance raised after Jade Goody s case. High uptake is essential to the success of the programme and the chance of achieving this is increased, if at the end of my research I would be able to understand what deters women from attending. Previous work has explored the importance of demographic factors such as age, marital status and ethnic group structural/health-care factors such as appointment times, female practitioners and ‘friendly treatment and attitudinal factors like embarrassment trust and concerns about discomfort. Rather than asking women to explain the reasons for their attendance or non-attendance for screening, as...
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...Invitation for Cervical Screening and Frequency of Invitation of Cervical Screening for Women aged 50 to 64 years Authors: Dr Sharon Hillier, Miss Helen Beer, Dr Shantini Paranjothy, Dr Rosemary Fox, Mr Bryan Rose and Professor Hilary Fielder. Screening Division Public Health Wales NHS Trust Based on papers prepared by Professor Hilary Fielder and Mr Huw Brunt Date: May 2011 Version: 1 Publication/ Distribution: Public Health Wales (Intranet) Welsh Assembly Government Review Date: Review in May 2012 or sooner if new information or evidence is available. Purpose and Summary of Document: The current policy for Wales is that women aged between 20 and 64 years are invited for cervical screening every three years. Scotland invite women aged between 20-60 years every three years. England and Northern Ireland invite women from 25 years of age and reduce the frequency of invitations to every 5 years for those aged between 50 and 64 years. The purpose of this document is to review the evidence on which the age of Cervical Screening Wales, Screening Division, Public Health Wales Discussion paper on age of first invitation and frequency of invitation invitation and frequency of invitation is based and to discuss the implications of changes for the female population of Wales, for Cervical Screening Wales and for NHS Wales. Work Plan reference: Cervical Screening Wales, Screening Division. Date: May 2011 Version 1 Page: 2 of 50 Cervical Screening Wales, Screening Division, Public...
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...The Significance of Cancer Screening Cancer is the second leading cause of death in the United States next to heart disease. There were about more than 575, 000 people died of cancer in 2011. More than 1.5 million diagnosed with cancer as per United States Cancer Statistics 1999-2011, Incidence and Mortality Web-based Report (CDC, 2015, p.1). With the increasing rate of cancer, the government created several programs to save the lives of the people. Cancer screening like Papanicolaou smear and breast exam to all Americans can reduce the incidence of cancer and deaths (CDC, 2015, p.2). Every Woman Matters Program Every Woman Matters (EWM) is a federally funded program designed to remove barriers to preventive breast and cervical cancer screening by providing public awareness of the risk women population. EWM also make screening more financially accessible to women who have low-income or no health insurance. EWM program also pays the following check-ups with associated tests like clinical breast examination, Papanicolaou smear, and mammography. They pay at reduced price or no cost to eligible women who are 40 to 74 years of age (Backer et al., 2005, p. 401). These tests will detect early stages of cancer, prevent progression, save lives, reduce health care cost and suffering. A case study was made to see the effectiveness of screening for breast and cervical cancer in Nebraska. However, even with these EWM program, it remained suboptimal despite their awareness...
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...New Test May Improve Cervical Cancer Detection Nov. 23, 2012 — Routine smear tests have considerably reduced the number of cases of cervical cancer, but despite intensive screening 250 women in Sweden still die from the disease every year. Researchers at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Sweden, have developed new methods of minimizing the number of missed cases and making diagnosis more reliable. Since the introduction of organized screening in Sweden in the 1960s, the number of women being diagnosed with and succumbing to cervical cancer has fallen dramatically. Screening, where a sample of cells is collected from the cervix and examined under an optical microscope, detects early cell changes so that they can be treated before they cause cancer. However, despite intensive screening 250 women still die from cervical cancer each year in Sweden, and a further 500 develop the disease. The sensitivity of the current test is low, which means that cell samples must be taken at least ever three years. A large number of tests must also be repeated because of unreliable results -- something which causes anxiety among patients and additional costs for the health service. Researchers at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg have now developed a complementary test capable of minimizing the number of missed cancer cases. "Around 70 per cent of all cervical cancer cases are caused by two specific virus types, known as HPV16 and HPV18. We have developed a method...
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...Health Behavior There is strong evidence that the preventive medicine practice of screening for diseases is very effective in saving lives, reducing suffering and health care costs. In light of this the federal government in collaboration with states launched the Every Woman Matters (EWM) program to help improve public awareness of the need for early detection of breast and cervical cancer and also to improve access to screening services for low income women, through the removal of the barrier to preventive breast and cervical cancer screening in these communities. By design EWM aligned with participating practices to help them implement the program. Eligible women received clinical breast examination, mammography, and papanicolaou smear from these practices at reduced or no cost. Unfortunately EWM program failed short of its objectives. The possible reasons for the ineffectiveness of the EWM program were largely design-based. A study conducted by Backer et al in collaboration with the Nebraska Health and Human Services EWM program helped elucidate some of the design flaws of this program. The group collected and analyzed both qualitative and quantitative data from 7 participating practices, in addition to in-depth interviews with physicians and staff at participating practices. By design this study was intended to: * Identify barriers to delivery of breast and cervical cancer screening services * Enhance understanding of the attitudes of physicians and staff towards...
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...Health Promotion in Cervical Cancer A literature review Cervical cancer is the second most common cancer among women worldwide (WHO, 2010a). The American Cancer Society (ACS) estimates that about 12,200 new cases of cervical cancer will be diagnosed in the United States this year, and 4,120 women will die of the disease (ACS, 2010). Cervical cancer is caused by the Human Papilloma Virus (HPV), but has an almost 100% survival rate if caught early enough. Although national incidence rates have declined, there are still a disproportionate number of cases amongst African-American and Hispanic women. In the United States, various health organizations are attempting to deal with the cultural barriers to the prevention, early detection, and treatment of cervical cancer. Three journal articles were reviewed to examine current nursing strategies for health promotion as related to cervical cancer. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health promotion as “the process of enabling people to increase control over and to improve their health” (Ottawa charter for health promotion, as cited in WHO, 2010b). Health promotion strategies focus on eliciting lifestyle changes and promoting positive personal choices among individuals, families, and communities. Health promotion is a key element of primary prevention of disease (Leavell & Clark, as cited in Edelman & Mandel, 2010). Guardasil (Merck & Co., Inc.), the HPV vaccination, is the primary preventative tool that...
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...WOMAN MATTERS WALDEN UNIVERSITY NURS 6050N Breast and cervical cancer are leading cancers among both low-income and minority women. This group of women are less likely to be screened for these malignancies. Early detection, early testing and education are the first line to prevention, decreases the concern for women’s health and improves quality of life. Soci-economics play a strong role in breast and cervical cancers in low-income minority women verses their counter parts. Every Woman Matters program was designed to assist low income women with the proper screening and prevention assistance for high risk disease such as breast cancer and cervical cancer. In this assignment I will discuss the program’s ineffectiveness, programs that work and suggestions on future programs that may be effective as it relates to women’s health. Every Woman Matters Every Woman Matters is a state run government supported program, intended to remove obstructions to preventive breast and cervical malignancy by raising awareness of its danger and making screening accessible to low-income women. Under this program many low income women ages 40-67 and who met the qualifications were able to receive multiple health screenings such as mammograms, breast exams and papanicolaou smear test at reduced or no cost (Backer et al., 2004). However, not only did it cover screenings for breast and cervical cancer it also provided screenings for other illness that affected women such as cardiovascular disease...
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...Cervical Cancer Caused by Human Papillomavirus Infection in Latin America: A Focus on Populations in Rural Honduras Cervical cancer is the second most common type of cancer affecting women worldwide, but is the most common cause of cancer death in women in developing countries, disproportionally representing 80% of the cervical cancer deaths in women throughout the world (Ferrera et al., 1997; Perkins et al., 2011). More specifically, in 2008, statistics recorded over 80,000 women in Latin America and the Caribbean were diagnosed with cervical cancer, and nearly 36,000 died from the disease (PAHO et al., 2012). This accounts for over 16% (incidence) and over 13% (mortality) of the world’s public health burden due to cervical cancer. These numbers indicate that incidence of cervical cancer in Latin America is among the highest in the world, along with Sub-Saharan Africa and South East Asia (Arrossi et al., 2003). Cervical cancer mortality has remained consistently high in Latin America despite significant health care spending increases due to poor quality services, as well as, limited population coverage, specifically in rural areas (Perkins et al., 2009). Most importantly; however, is that cervical cancer is the most prevalent cause of cancer in women in Honduras and the leading cause of cancer death for Honduran women (Ferrera et al., 1997; Garrett et al., 2013) It is critical to note that many epidemiological studies show that the human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA is detected...
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...RUNNING HEAD: CERVICAL CANCER SCREENING IN PRIMARY CARE Protocol Paper Cervical Cancer Screening in Primary Care Fall, 2008 ABSTRACT In the 1970s cervical cancer was the leading cause of cancer death for women in the United States. However, in the past 40 years, the number of cases of cervical cancer and the number of deaths from cervical cancer have declined radically. This decrease is largely the result of many women getting regular Pap tests (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2004). Persistent infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infections can lead to cervical cancer. Since HPV and precancerous lesions of the cervix are usually asymptomatic, prevention and regular screening remains imperative for early detection and treatment of cervical cancer. Here we examine strategies for prevention, assessment, and management for cervical cancer and contemplate briefly potential implications if left undiagnosed or untreated. Cervical Cancer Screening in Primary Care Introduction Human Papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a major health concern in the United States. Genital HPV is the most common sexually transmitted infection (STI) in America. There are more than 100 different types of HPV infections. Of these, 40 affect mucosal surfaces and more specifically anogenital epithelium including: Cervix, vagina, vulva, rectum, urethra, penis, and anus. The different strands of the HPV infections are divided into “high-risk” and “low-risk...
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...What Is Cervical Cancer? What Causes Cervical Cancer? Cervical cancer, or cancer of the cervix, is cancer of the entrance to the uterus (womb). The cervix is the narrow part of the lower uterus, often referred to as the neck of the womb. Cervical cancer occurs most commonly in women over the age of 30. The American Cancer Society estimates that 11,270 diagnoses of cervical cancer will be made by the end of 2009 in the USA. Over 4,000 women in the USA die from cervical cancer each year. The National Health Service (NHS), UK, says that over 3,000 women are diagnosed with cervical cancer each year in the UK. Cervical cancer caused 941 deaths in the UK in 2007. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) at least 200,000 women worldwide die of cervical cancer each year. WHO adds that if the HPV vaccine is administered globally, hundreds of thousands of lives each year could eventually be saved. Cancer research UK reported that the rate of women diagnosed with the cervical cancer in the UK has halved from 16 per 100,000 in 1988 to 8 per 100,000 according to the latest figures - the NHS (National Health Service) Cervical Screening Programme began in 1988. What is the cervix? The cervix, or the neck of the womb, and the womb are both parts of a female reproductive system. The female reproductive system consists of: Vagina Womb (uterus), which includes the cervix Ovaries Women have two ovaries, one on either side of the lower abdomen (pelvis). Each month...
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...414 C. Rath Cervical cancer is considered to be a slow-growing reproductive disease that affects thousands of women in the United States annually. This particular type of cancer forms within and/or on the tissue of the cervix. The cervix is part of the female reproductive tract, which connects the uterus to the vagina. Cervical cancer begins when surface level cells on the cervix divide uncontrollably causing cervical lesions, which if left untreated can progress into cancer. If not found in the early stages, cervical cancer can spread from the surface of the cervix, deep into the tissue of the cervix as well as the surrounding tissues within the vagina and uterus (Slaz, 2010). It is estimated that there is an incidence rate, or rate of new cases, of approximately twelve thousand women per year, with roughly four thousand of those women dying in the year 2010 alone (Fisher, 2009; Lindau, 2001). Research shows that while although all women are at risk for developing cervical cancer, the majority of women that actually die from the disease are low-income women and/or women of minority groups, such as African Americans and Hispanics. Due to various social, political, and cultural factors, as well as disparities in the healthcare system, such as access to resources and socioeconomic status, thousands of lowincome and primarily minority women die unnecessarily from cervical cancer. Several risk factors are involved when looking at various causes for cervical cancer. Some...
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...vaccines are available to prevent the human papillomavirus (HPV) types that cause most cervical cancers. These vaccines are bivalent vaccine (Cervarix) and quadrivalent vaccine (Gardasil). One of the HPV vaccines, Gardasil, also prevents HPV types that cause most genital warts. Gardasil also has been shown to prevent some cancers of the anus, vulva (area around the opening of the vagina), and vagina. Both vaccines are given in 3 shots over 6 months. Why is the HPV vaccine important? Genital HPV is a common virus that is passed from one person to another through direct skin-to-skin contact during sexual activity. Most sexually active people will get HPV at some time in their lives, though most will never even know it. HPV infection is most common in people in their late teens and early 20s. There are about 40 types of HPV that can infect the genital areas of men and women. Most HPV types cause no symptoms and go away on their own. But some types can cause cervical cancer in women and other less common cancers— like cancers of the anus, penis, vagina, and vulva and oropharynx (back of throat including base of tongue and tonsils). Other types of HPV can cause warts in the genital areas of men and women, called genital warts. Genital warts are not life-threatening. But they can cause emotional stress and their treatment can be very uncomfortable. Every year, about 12,000 women are diagnosed with cervical cancer and 4,000 women die from this disease in the U.S. About 1% of sexually active...
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...What is Cervical Cancer? Cervical cancer is a form of cancer caused by the growth of malignant cells developing in the cervix. The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina.1 It is possible for women of all ages to develop cervical cancer, although most cases affect women under 50.2 What causes cervical cancer? The major risk factor for cervical cancer is infection with human papillomavirus (HPV). HPV infection is common and is transmitted via skin-to-skin contact and body fluids. HPVs are a group of more than 100 related viruses. About 40 types are sexually transmitted through genital contact.3 What are the symptoms of cervical cancer? At early stages, cervical cancer may not cause any signs or symptoms. At advanced stages, cervical cancer may cause abnormal bleeding (during sex or after menopause), unusual discharges and discomfort or pain...
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...to take the cervical cancer health risk assessment. I chose this particular one because, when I was pregnant with my son and was having regular pap smear . I was told by my doctor that I had been exposed to one of the main causes of cervical cancer which is HPV(Human Papilloma Virus). I will get to what HPV is in a moment. Cervical cancer is cancer that forms in the tissues of the cervix. It is a disease in which the cells of the cervix become abnormal and start to grow uncontrollably, which can cause tumors to grow. HPV is a cause of at least seventy percent of all cervical cancers. HPV is a sexually transmitted disease and is one of the most common. It is so common that every man and women at one point in their lives will get it. There is some evidence that suggest that another sexually transmitted virus, the genital herpes virus also may be involved in cervical cancer. More than six million women in the United States have persistent Human Papilloma Virus infections. HPV does not have a current cure. Another fact, most women do not have any sign or symptoms of cervical cancer until it is invasive. When the cells grow uncontrollably and into the deeper layers of the cervix it is then invasive. Several risk factors for cervical cancer include family history, Immunosuppression which is HIV and having a chlamydia infection can also increase your risk. Sexual behaviour can also play a part and put women at risk for not only HVP infections which lead to cervical cancer but...
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...1. The patient was initially diagnosed with epidermoid (squamous) cell carcinoma. The initial diagnosis was performed under colposcopy, a procedure in which the doctor uses colposcope to closely examine the cervix, the vagina, and the vulva for signs of diseases. In this patient’s case, the doctor examined the cervix under colposcopy and found a large growth on the surface of the cervix. The cervix is lined with squamous cells, therefore it was initially diagnosed with squamous cell carcinoma. When surgical biopsy of the lesion was done, microscopic studies revealed high grade adenocarcinoma with atypical Atypical pneumonianeoplastic cells, marked by a proliferation of glandular tissues. Adenocarcinomas are carcinomas that develop from glandular cells which produce mucus in the endocervix. This type of cancer is found in the cells deeper into the tissues rather than just the lining of the cervix. 2. Papanicolaou test (Pap Smear) was introduced in the 1940’s as a screening test for cervical cancers. Pap Smear is a simple test in which a sample of cervical cells is examined under a microscope to detect cellular abnormalities 3. A karyotype is an organized profile of a person's chromosomes. 4. Two chromosomes specify gender — XX for female and XY for male. The rest are arranged in pairs, numbered 1 through 22, from largest to smallest. This arrangement helps scientists quickly identify chromosomal alterations that may result in a genetic disorder. 5. HPV...
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