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Company Law

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SOALAN:
Pengarah mempunyai kewajipan fidusiari di sisi undang-undang yang perlu dilaksanakan terhadap syarikat. Bincangkan tiga aspek kewajipan fidusiari dengan berpandukan kepada peruntukan seksyen dan kes-kes yang berkaitan.

JAWAPAN:
Pengarah merupakan ejen dan pemegang amanah kepada syarikatnya. Pengarah secara bersesama dalam lembaga pengarah menguasai urusan syarikat, menggerakkan dan menentukan arah tuju syarikat. Pengarah sebagai ejen syarikat mempunyai hubungan fidusiari dengan syarikatnya dan dengan itu mempunyai kewajipan fidusiari kepada syarikat.
Merujuk Seksyen 132(1) Akta Syarikat 1965, pengarah hendaklah bertindak dengan jujur dan menggunakan kerajinan yang munasabah dalam melepaskan kewajipan-kewajipan jawatannya. Tiga aspek kewajipan fidusiari pengarah ialah bertindak dengan jujur dalam memelihara kepentingan syarikat dan bukannya kepentingan pihak lain; tidak meletakkan dirinya dalam satu situasi di mana berlaku percanggahan antara kewajipannya terhadap syarikat dengan kepentingan dirinya; dan menggunakan kuasa dan aset yang telah diamanahkan kepadanya untuk maksud yang diperuntukkan, bukannya bagi maksud lain.
1) Pengarah hendaklah bertindak dengan jujur demi kepentingan syarikat
Seseorang pengarah hendaklah bertindak dengan jujur (bona fide) untuk kepentingan syarikat keseluruhannya. Perkataan ‘bertindak dengan jujur’ telah didefinisikan di dalam kes Marehesi lwn Barnes Keogh, iaitu ‘bertindak dengan jujur’ adalah dirujuk kepada perbuatan yang suci hati (bona fide) untuk kepentingan syarikat dalam melaksanakan tugas-tugas sebagai pengarah. Berdasarkan kes Re Smith & Fawcett Ltd. (1942), mahkamah memutuskan bahawa pengarah adalah terikat untuk melaksanakan tugasnya dengan jujur dan ikhlas, di mana pada pendapat mereka adalah demi kepentingan syarikat dan bukannya bagi tujuan sampingan yang lain.
Sekiranya pengarah mengutamakan kepentingan pihak lain selain daripada syarikatnya, maka pengarah dianggap telah melanggar tanggungjawab tersebut dan melakukan pecah amanah. Berdasarkan kes Re W & M Roith Ltd. (1967), Roith mengawal syarikat dengan memegang majority syer dan dia adalah seorang daripada tiga orang pengarah. Dia kemudiannya memasuki kontrak dengan syarikat di mana sekiranya dia mati, isterinya boleh mendapatkan pencen. Dia kemudiaannya meninggal dunia. Isterinya menuntut pencen tersebut tetapi ditolak. Mahkamah memutuskan bahawa sewaktu membuat keputusan, pengarah tidak mengira kepentingan syarikat tetapi mengira kepentingan isterinya.
Kepentingan syarikat keseluruhannya tidak meliputi kepentingan pekerja. Berdasarkan kes Parke lwn Daily News (1962), pengarah-pengarah bercadang untuk mengagihkan hasil jualan akhbar syarikat kepada pekerja-pekerjanya yang terpaksa diberhentikan kerana syarikat dalam proses penggulungan. Mahkamah memutuskan bahawa keputusan lembaga pengarah itu adalah tak sah kerana keputusan dibuat bukan untuk kepentingan syarikat.
Berdasarkan kes Winkworth lwn Edward Baron Development Co. Ltd. (1987), Lord Templeman menyatakan bahawa kewajiban itu adalah dipunyai oleh pengarah terhadap pemegang syer dan pemiutang untuk memastikan segala urusan syarikat diuruskan dengan betul dan supaya harta-harta syarikat tidak diekploitasikan untuk kepentingan pengarah dan memprejudiskan pemiutang.
Menurut kes-kes di atas, pengarah hendaklah sentiasa jujur kepada syarikat dan berkewajipan mengutamakan kepentingan syarikat, termasuk juga kepentingan ahli-ahli syarikat, pemegang saham dan pemiutang.
2) Pengarah tidak meletakkan dirinya dalam satu situasi yang terdapat percanggahan antara kewajipannya untuk syarikat dan kepentingan peribadinya
Pengarah dilarang melibatkan dirinya dalam situasi di mana pertentangan antara kewajipan syarikat dan kepentingan peribadi berlaku. Ini bertujuan untuk mengelak pengarah dari meletakkan dirinya dalam satu keadaan di mana pengarah bertindak untuk kepentingan dirinya. Sekiranya pengarah memperoleh keuntungan secara rahsia, keuntungan tersebut mestilah diserahkan kepada syarikat.
Terdapat enam keadaan di mana terdapat percanggahan kepentingan pengarah di antara kewajipan untuk syarikat dan kepentingan peribadinya, iaitu:-
a) Seseorang pengarah tidak boleh menyalahgunakan harta atau wang syarikat
Pengarah mempunyai kewajipan untuk bertindak demi kepentingan syarikat apabila menggunakan wang atau harta syarikat dan tidak mencampur-adukkan wang atau harta syarikat dengan wang atau harta peribadi mereka. Pengarah juga tidak boleh menggunakan harta atau wang syarikat untuk memperolehi faedah peribadi. Kalau dia melakukannya, dia bukan sahaja telah melanggar tugasnya tetapi keuntungan dari harta atau wang yang diperolehi adalah milikan syarikat. Dia juga boleh didapati bersalah dibawah jenayah pecah amanah.
Berdasarkan kes Lai Ah Kau & Anor lwn Public Prosecutor (1988), pengarah syarikat dan pemegang saham mewujudkan satu skim mengeluarkan wang syarikat dan membahagikannya sebagai keuntungan yang dijangkakan. Kontrak-kontrak kerja direka seolah-olah wujud, iaitu baucer disiapkan dan wang dibayar berdasarkan bil kontraktor. Akhirnya, wang berkenaan sampai kepada mereka. Mahkamah memutuskan bahawa pengarah telah disabitkan dengan kesalahan pecah amanah, perbuatan mengeluarkan wang dengan helah berupa satu penipuan.
b) Seseorang pengarah tidak boleh menggunakan maklumat yang diperolehi sebagai pengarah untuk mendapatkan keuntungan bagi dirinya sendiri atau pihak selain syarikat dan ianya merugikan syarikat
Seksyen 132(2) Akta Syarikat 1965 memperuntukkan bahawa pagawai-pegawai atau ejen syarikat atau pegawai bursa saham tidak boleh menggunakan dengan tidak betul apa-apa maklumat yang diperolehi dengan kerana kedudukannya sebagai pegawai atau ejen syarikat atau pegawai bursa saham untuk mendapat secara langsung atau tidak langsung faedah untuk dirinya sendiri atau untuk mana-mana orang lain atau untuk menyebabkan kerugian kepada syarikat. Oleh itu, pengarah tidak dibenarkan untuk menggunakan bagi kepentingan peribadi maklumat yang diamanahkan kepada mereka bagi kegunaan syarikat.
Seseorang pengarah tidak boleh menggunakan secara tak wajar maklumat syarikat yang diperolehi dalam kedudukannya sebagai pengarah untuk kepentingan dirinya, orang lain atau yang memudaratkan syarikat. Seseorang pengarah yang melanggar larangan ini boleh dipertanggungkan untuk memulangkan keuntungan yang diperolehi itu kepada syarikat atas apa-apa kemudaratan yang dialami oleh syarikat, dan jika sabit kesalahan boleh juga didenda RM 30,000.00 atau dipenjara selama lima tahun atau kedua-duanya sekali.
Berdasarkan kes PP lwn Tan Koon Swan (1987), seorang pegawai syarikat tidak boleh menyalahgunakan mana-mana maklumat yang diperolehi dengan kedudukannya sebagai pegawai syarikat bagi mendapatkan keuntungan peribadinya dan menyebabkan kerugian kepada syarikat sama ada secara langsung atau tidak langsung. Keuntungan yang diperolehi dengan cara ini, mestilah dipulangkan kepada syarikat. Berdasarkan kes Thomas Marshall (Exporters) Ltd. Lwn Guinle (1978), Guinle merupakan seorang pengarah urusan sebuah syarikat yang menjalankan perniagaan import. Guinle menjalankan perniagaannya sendiri yang bersaing dengan syarikat tanpa pengetahuan pihak syarikat. Apabila perkara ini diketahui syarikat, syarikat mendapatkan injuksi untuk menghalangnya daripada berurusan dengan pelanggan dan pembekal syarikat. Mahkamah memberikan perintah injuksi selepas mendapati Guinle telah melanggar kewajipan fidusiarinya untuk bertindak dengan jujur dan mahkamah berpendapat maklumat yang diperolehinya adalah maklumat rahsia yang hanya boleh digunakan demi kepentingan syarikat.
c) Seseorang pengarah tidak boleh mengambil kesempatan dengan menggunakan kedudukannya sebagai pengarah untuk mendapatkan keuntungan bagi dirinya
Pengarah tidak boleh meletakkan dirinya di dalam kedudukan di mana kelihatan bahawa beliau telah dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor lain untuk bertindak selain daripada kepentingan syarikat. Sekiranya didapati pengarah telah menggunakan kedudukannya untuk memperolehi keuntungan peribadi, pengarah adalah bertanggungan untuk memulangkan kembali keuntungan yang diperolehi.
Berdasarkan kes Mahesan lwn Malaysian Government Officers Co-operative Housing Society (1987), Mahesan adalah seorang pengarah dan bekerja untuk syarikat Malaysian Government Officers Co-operative Housing Society. Tujuan penubuhan syarikat ialah untuk menyediakan perumahan untuk pekerja kerajaan. Mahesan menerima rasuah dari Manickam dalam satu transaksi yang melibatkan pembelian tanah. Manickan membeli tanah dengan harga $456,000, tetapi dia menjual kepada syarikat dengan harga $944,000 dan memberi rasuah sebanyak $122,000 kepada Mahesan. Ini menyebabkan syarikat sebenarnya boleh membeli tanah tersebut dengan harga $456,000 tetapi mereka terpaksa membayar $944,000. Mahkamah memutuskan bahawa syarikat boleh menuntut jumlah rasuah atau kerugian daripada perlanggaran kewajiban oleh Mahesan. Memandangkan kerugian syarikat adalah lebih besar dari jumlah rasuah, Mahesan diperintah untuk membayar kerugian yang dialami oleh syarikat akibat daripada rasuah tersebut. Berdasarkan kes Regal (Hastings) Ltd. Lwn Gulliver (1942), sebuah syarikat, X yang memiliki sebuah panggung wayang, membentuk sebuah anak syarikat untuk membeli dua buah lagi panggung wayang dengan maksud untuk menjual ketiga-tiganya sekali gus. Pengarah-pengarah memohon beli syer-syer dalam anak syarikat berkenaan dan mendapat faedah apabila anak syarikat itu dijual dengan memperoleh keuntungan. Mahkamah memutuskan bahawa pengarah-pengarah telah menggunakan maklumat dan kesempatan yang diperolehinya sebagai pengarah syarikat X untuk memperoleh syer-syer tersebut dan tanpa membuat pendedahan yang sewajarnya, adalah bertanggungan untuk menyerahkan kepada syarikat X atas keuntungan yang diperolehi oleh mereka.
d) Seseorang pengarah tidak boleh mengambil atau menyimpan sebarang untung rahsia (dalam bentuk upah, yuran, komisen dan lain-lain)
Jika seseorang pengarah menerima apa-apa keuntungan atau ganjaran dari pihak ketiga kerana menjalankan kewajipannya bagi pihak syarikat, ganjaran yang diperolehinya hendaklah diserahkan kepada syarikat.
Berdasarkan kes Boston Deep Sea Fishing & Ice Co lwn Ansell (1888) , Ansell merupakan pengarah urusan syarikat Boston dan beliau bertanggungjawab dalam pembinaan bot-bot menangkap ikan bagi pihak syarikat. Beliau telah dibayar komisen oleh pembuat kapal tanpa pengetahuan syarikat. Syarikat juga tidak mengetahui bahawa Ansell adalah pemegang saham kepada sebuah syarikat pembekal ais dan syarikat pembekal ikan. Syarikat-syarikat tersebut telah membayar bonus kepada pemegang-pemegang saham yang memberikan perkhidmatan mereka. Ansell kemudiannya memasuki kontrak dengan kedua-dua syarikat bagi pihak syarikat Boston. Mahkamah memutuskan bahawa kepentingan peribadi Ansell bertentangan dengan kewajipan fidusiari kepada syarikat Boston apabila menerima komisen daripada pembuat kapal dan menerima bonus daripada kedua-dua syarikat di mana beliau adalah pemegang saham.
e) Seseorang pengarah tidak boleh memasuki kontrak dengan syarikatnya tanpa mendedahkan atau memberitahu tentang fakta bahawa beliau adalah pihak yang mempunyai kepentingan
Sekiranya pengarah membuat keuntungan daripada urusniaga tersebut ianya mestilah didedahkan kepada syarikat. Kegagalan pengarah mendedahkan perkara tersebut boleh mengakibatkan pengarah bertanggungan terhadap syarikat ke atas keuntungan tersebut kerana pengarah berada di dalam kedudukan di mana kepentingan peribadi bertentangan dengan kepentingan syarikat. Seksyen 131(1) memperuntukkan bahawa tiap-tiap pengarah syarikat yang dalam apa cara, sama ada secara langsung atau tidak langsung, berminat di dalam kontrak atau kontrak yang dicadangkan dengan syarikat tersebut hendaklah secepat mungkin yang praktik selepas fakta-fakta yang relevan telah sampai ke pengetahuannya mengistiharkan sifat kepentingannya di mesyuarat pengarah-pengarah syarikat. Seksyen 131(5) pula memperuntukkan bahawa tiap-tiap pengarah syarikat yang memegang apa-apa jawatan atau memiliki apa-apa harta sama ada secara langsung atau tidak langsung tugas-tugas atau kepentingan-kepentingan mungkin wujud bercanggah dengan tugas-tugas atau kepentingan-kepentingannya sebagai pengarah hendaklah mengisytiharkan di mesyuarat pengarah-pengarah syarikat fakta dan sifat jenis dan had percanggahan tersebut. Seksyen 131 menyatakan pengarah mesti mendedahkan keadaan kepentingannya sama ada secara langsung atau tidak langsung di dalam mana-mana kontrak yang dimasuki dengan syarikat. Jika pengarah memegang apa-apa jawatan atau memiliki apa-apa harta yang boleh menimbulkan percanggahan dengan kepentingannya sebagai pengarah, maka perkara ini hendaklah didedahkan kepada mesyuarat lembaga pengarah. Berdasarkan kes Transvaal Lands Co. lwn New Belgium (Transvaal) Land & Development Co (1914), Samuel dan Harvey merupakan pengarah-pengarah syarikat Transvaal Lands dan pemegang saham dalam syarikat New Belgium. Samuel juga adalah pengarah syarikat New Belgium. Lembaga Pengarah Transvaal Lands bersetuju membeli saham-saham syarikat New Belgium atas pujukan Samuel. Selepas transaksi jual beli saham selesai, syarikat Transvaal mengetahui Samuel dan Harvey mempunyai kepentingan di dalam syarikat New Belgium dan syarikat Transvaal ingin membatalkan kontrak tersebut. Mahkamah memutuskan bahawa kepentingan sebagai pengarah dan pemegang saham di dalam New Belgium bertentangan dengan kewajipan mereka untuk bertindak demi kepentingan syarikat Transvaal, mereka telah melanggar kewajipan fidusiari terhadap syarikat. Berdasarkan kes Peso Silver Mines Ltd. (NPL) lwn Cropper, mahkamah memutuskan bila lembaga pengarah dengan suci hati telah menolak satu peluang untuk syarikat, maka pengarah bolehlah mengambil peluang tersebut tanpa perlu mendedahkan kepada syarikat.
f) Persaingan dengan syarikat di mana pengarah tidak boleh memperolehi apa-apa harta atau peluang perniagaan yang sepatutnya diperolehi oleh syarikat
Pengarah berhak melakukan sesuatu yang bersaingan dengan syarikat tetapi tindakan itu hendaklah didedahkan sepenuhnya dan dibenarkan oleh syarikat. Sekiranya pengarah menubuhkan perniagaan yang bersaing dengan syarikat yang mana beliau adalah pengarah dan kemudiannya mengambil peluang ke atas kontrak yang sepatutnya diberikan kepada syarikat yang beliau menjadi pengarah, beliau dikatakan telah melanggar kewajipan fidusiarinya. Berdasarkan kes Avel Consultants Sdn Bhd & Anor lwn Mohamed Zain Yusof & Ors (1985), sebuah syarikat, X yang menjalankan perniagaan sebagai perunding dan penasihat dalam kerja kejuruteraan telah berkontrak dengan syarikat Y. Kemudiannya tiga orang pengarah syarikat itu telah menubuhkan syarikat lain, iaitu syarikat Z dengan menjalankan perniagaan yang sama, dan telah mencuri pelanggan syarikat X. Mereka juga telah mengambil langkah serong sehingga kontrak di antara syarikat X dengan syarikat Y terpaksa ditamatkan. Kemudian mereka sendiri pula yang berkontrak dengan syarikat X dan memperoleh keuntungan yang lumayan. Mahkamah memutuskan bahawa mereka adalah pemegang amanah untuk syarikat X bagi kesemua fee perundingan yang diperolehi oleh mereka hasil daripada kontrak tersebut. Walau bagaimanapun, sekiranya pengarah mendedahkan urusan mereka kepada mesyuarat agung dan ahli-ahli mesyuarat itu memberi keizinan dengan mengesahkan tindakannya, pengarah berkenaan akan terlepas daripada apa-apa pertanggungjawaban. Seseorang pengarah boleh mengambil kesempatan yang ada semasa dia memegang jawatan pengarah dalam sesebuah syarikat jika penglibatannya itu didedahkan secara yang sewajarnya kepada mesyuarat agung terlebih dahulu.
Berdasarkan kes New Zealand Netherlands Society 'Oranje' Incorporated lwn Kuys & YL (1973), Majlis Privy memutuskan bahawa sesebuah syarikat boleh, melalui perjanjian, membebaskan seseorang daripada kewajipan fidusiarinya. Perjanjian di antara syarikat dengan seseorang pengarah untuk membebaskan pengarah berkenaan daripada kewajipan fidusiari adalah sah dan munasabah.
Menurut kes-kes di atas, dijelaskan bahawa pengarah tidak boleh meletakkan dirinya dalam satu keadaan di mana berlaku percanggahan antara kewajipannya terhadap syarikat dengan kepentingan dirinya. Peruntukan undang-undang yang mengkehendaki pengarah mendedahkan apa-apa kepentingan dirinya yang mungkin bercanggah dengan kepentingan syarikat bertujuan untuk memastikan pengarah terpelihara dari melakukan perlanggaran terhadap kewajipannya.
3) Pengarah mesti menggunakan kuasa dan aset yang telah diamanahkan kepadanya dengan maksud yang diperuntukkan
Pengarah boleh dikatakan melanggar kewajipan fidusiarinya sekiranya beliau menyalahgunakan aset syarikat atau menggunakan kuasa yang diberikan kepadanya untuk tujuan yang salah. Berdasarkan kes Belmont Finance Corporation Ltd. Lwn Williams Furniture Ltd. (1980), mahkamah memutuskan bahawa pengarah boleh didapati bersalah di bawah jenayah pecah amanah jika menyalahgunakan wang syarikat.
Berdasarkan kes Re Duomatic Ltd (1969), pembayaran telah dibuat kepada bekas pengarah sebagai ganti rugi untuk kehilangan pekerjaan. Pembayaran ini tidak diberitahu kepada pemegang syer. Jadi pembayaran tersebut adalah tidak sah. Mahkamah memutuskan bahawa pengarah yang membuat pembayaran tersebut haruslah bertanggungjawab terhadap pembayaran tersebut kerana menyalahgunakan wang syarikat.
Kesimpulannya, pengarah hendaklah bertindak dengan jujur dan menggunakan kerajinan yang munasabah dalam melaksanakan kewajipan fidusiarinya, iaitu bertindak dengan jujur dalam memelihara kepentingan syarikat dan bukannya kepentingan pihak lain; tidak meletakkan dirinya dalam satu keadaan di mana berlaku percanggahan antara kewajipannya terhadap syarikat dengan kepentingan dirinya; dan menggunakan kuasa dan aset yang telah diamanahkan kepadanya untuk maksud yang diperuntukkan, bukannya bagi maksud lain.

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... |Suggested evidence to be retained | |. | | | |1. |Each candidate should write a report that|A written report that can be used by Charles Prospect to| | |can be used by Charles Prospect to |give the required presentation to the client | | |deliver his presentation to Bean & Co. |It should clearly describe the personality of a company | | |The report will be assessed for the |separate from its owners and board | | |demonstrated knowledge of the legal |It should also describe the process by which a company | | |formation of a company, forms of |can be formed and registered | | |corporate body and procedures for company|The different forms of corporate body that can be formed| | |formation. Case Study 1 provides |should be clearly described | | |background information for this. | | | | | | | | | | | ...

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...corporate governance practice as well as other perspectives of corporate governance. We also hope to introduce to students some of the more pertinent issues and trends in this field. As part of our ‘E-learning week’, there will be online lectures for students to view. Students will also be expected to do some independent study and research into the topic, which will form the base for the mid-term written assignment. At the end of the e-learning sessions, students should have a working understanding of: • What is meant by ‘corporate governance’; • Key milestones in the development of corporate governance in Singapore; • The regulatory framework for corporate governance in Singapore; • The interaction between Company Law and corporate governance; • Key regulatory mechanisms for Corporate Governance in Singapore; and • The provisions and operation of the Singapore Code of Corporate Governance 2012 Readings Many articles have been posted to help you along with writing the essay but you are required to be discerning and make your own selection of which articles to read. You may also do your own research to supplement the articles. Matters for study and independent research / discussion 1. What do you understand by the term ‘Corporate Governance’ and what are its...

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...in Public Law: Challenges and Perspectives, Faculty of Law, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 13th to 14 December 2011, Shah Alam, Malaysia. ABSTRACT In Newton v Birmingham Small Arms Co (1906), the English court made it clear that the rights of auditors cannot be abridged nor restricted by any regulations of the company. This is to ensure that the auditors’ rights are secured. The rights are unqualified and this will enable auditors to discharge their role and duties effectively. Additionally, the Companies Act 1965 (CA) gives substantive powers to enable auditors to carry out their duties effectively. This is because if their hands are tied, they will not be able to uncover any wrongdoings by the company’s management. In fact, any one who obstructs their duties, is in breach of the CA. Auditors have a right of access at all reasonable times to the accounting records and other records, including registers of the company. Moreover, the CA provides that auditors enjoy qualified privilege in certain circumstances. Thus, this study investigates imperative issues on the office of auditors concerning rights, powers and privilege. This is to strengthen the role and duties of auditors to bring about a more meaningful existence of auditors. In doing so, this study will explore the necessary reforms that should be made on the issues concerning the office of auditors. Auditors’ office and powers should not be taken lightly. Nevertheless, the provisions in ‘the Companies Act’, Banking...

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...MEANING, CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES OF A COMPANY STRUCTURE 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.0 Objective Introduction Meaning of Company Characteristics of a Company Distinction between Company and Partnership Types of Company Summary Keywords Self Assessment Questions Suggested Readings OBJECTIVE After reading this lesson, you should be able to: (a) (b) (c) 1.1 Define a company and explain its features. Make a distribution between company and partnership firm. Explain the various types of companies. INTRODUCTION Industrial has revolution led to the emergence of large scale business organizations. These organization require big investments and the risk involved is very high. Limited resources and unlimited liability of partners are two important limitations of partnerships of partnerships in undertaking big business. Joint Stock Company form of business organization has become extremely popular as it provides a solution to (1) overcome the limitations of partnership business. The Multinational companies like Coca-Cola and, General Motors have their investors and customers spread throughout the world. The giant Indian Companies may include the names like Reliance, Talco Bajaj Auto, Infosys Technologies, Hindustan Lever Ltd., Ranbaxy Laboratories Ltd., and Larsen and Tubro etc. 1.2 MEANING OF COMPANY Section 3 (1) (i) of the Companies Act, 1956 defines a company as “a company formed and registered under this Act or an existing company”. Section 3(1) (ii) Of the act states...

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...person; and ❖ the sole purpose of the company was to obtain the benefit of limited liability. Macaura v Northern Assurance: Where a member transfers property to his company, he loses any proprietary interest in the property. [A company owns property distinct from the property of its members.] LIFTING the corporate veil Incorporation for a fraudulent/improper purpose ❖ Gilford Motor v Horne: If the company was formed for the primary purpose of avoiding existing contractual obligations, the corporate veil is lifted. ➢ *H resigned from his position as managing director of GM. ➢ *H started a business under his name which competed with GM. ➢ *H discovered that the former service agreement provided that he would not, at any time, solicit customers of GM. ➢ *A company was incorporated in the name of H’s wife, which then conducted the business. ➢ *Although H was not a shareholder of the company, he conducted its affairs. ➢ *The company sent circulars to GM’s customers, seeking their business. ➢ The company was formed for the purpose of avoiding existing contractual obligations ( it was a “mere cloak or sham” used as a device ( corporate veil was lifted. Agency relationship of holding company & subsidiary ❖ Adams v Cape Industries: Subsidiary companies will be treated as separate legal entities. ➢ *C, holding company, set up subsidiaries in US specifically to evade US product liability laws. ➢ Holding company was not present in the US even though...

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...partner, so Mr. Salomon business into a limited company. Then according to the company law, set up a company to be at least 7 shareholders holding at further 1 share each. So, Mr. Salomon gave himself a shares, also gave him a share of his wife and five children. Mr. Salomon company 20007 shares, but he holds 20001 shares, and his family members each have a share. With the passage of time, Mr. Salomon's company faces the difficulty. In order to raise funds, and also the company, Mr. Salomon sold its own debt to Benedick. To raise the money but can't let company to prevent more problems, because the money is used for business. Creditors discovered the money just can be used to repay the debt creditors holding it, it's considered a secured creditor. This event will be brought to the court or the Supreme Court. They all think that creditors cannot recover their entire debt contract with the company, so not with Mr. Salomon. After a series of the appeals, it is considered by Salomon v Salomon & Co Ltd is a company, with separate legal personality qualification, so also can’t say Mr. Salomon owned by the company. The company and Mr. Salomon have two legal persons in the law. So it is has the right to enter into a contract. The principle in Salomon are a company must be an independent legal person, but from other members or shareholders. The principle of Salomon must also know the veil of incorporation of the company. If a company will formally merge, courts usually don’t see the...

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...Umunna represent the law in Singapore? To determine whether the decision in Island Export Finance Ltd (IEF Ltd) v Umunna represent the law in Singapore, the application of the common and statutory law will be used. Upon applying the right principles, the decision will represent Singapore law. Resignation to take up a corporate opportunity Singapore law states that the court held a director breached of his duty by taking up the opportunity if he resigns from a company to take up a corporate opportunity without the company’s permission where (i) the resignation was prompted or influenced by a desire to acquire the opportunity sought by the company or (ii) it was the director’s position with the company rather than a new initiative that led the director to the opportunity which the director later acquired. Intention for resignation A director will be held in breach of duty if his main intention of resignation is to take up the opportunity. Based on the facts, Umunna resigned due to his dissatisfaction with IEF. Hence, U was held not in breach of his fiduciary duty. This aligned with Singapore law as seen from Personal Automation Mart [PAM] v Tan Swe Sang where Tan resigns to take advantage of the contract sought by PAM and the court held that Tan had breached her fiduciary duties. Definition of corporate opportunity and source of information Singapore law defines a corporate opportunity as a business opportunity which the company is considering or...

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...Law: For companies registered after 1 July 1998, there are two choices; do not register a corporate constitution and allow the replaceable rules to automatically apply; or create a specific corporate constitution which will automatically displace the replaceable rules in their entirety or in part (if so stated expressly) . If both the contract and constitution are dependent on each other, then even if the constitution is amended so as to permit dismissal of the director, he can still claim damages arising out of breach of the contract this is evident in the case Carrier Australasia Ltd v Hunt (1939) 61 CLR 534. Hunt sued Carrier for wrongful dismissal and the Supreme Court held that although the company had power to alter its articles it was liable for damages for breach of contract. The constitution does not create a legal relationship between the company and outsiders, and therefore cannot be enforced by an outsider against the company, evidence of this is shown in Eley v Positive Government Security Life Assurance Co (1875) 1 Ex D 20. The corporate constitution could only be enforced by a member if it affected their member status. As the constitution status as company solicitor did not affect him as a member of the company, he could not take action to enforce the constitution to allow him to continue as the company solicitor. Application: Even though a special resolution conforming to all the requirements of the Corporations Act 2001 was passed by shareholders removing...

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Company Law

...1. Easy Groceries Pty Ltd: the Company Issue The issue here is Easy Groceries Pty Ltd is liable for the debts incurred as a separate legal entity to its directors and shareholders? Or will its directors be personally liable for its debts? Law Upon incorporation, a company becomes a separate legal entity from its directors and members (s119). It can sue and be sued, acquire assets and debts, and enter into contracts in its own name. Its existence can lasts a lifetime as well. The Doctrine of Separate Legal Entity also known as “corporate veil” entails that the Directors of a Company have no personal liability while its Shareholders are only liable up to the amount they paid for their shares. In Salomon v Salomon & Co Ltd Case, Mr. Salomon was the majority shareholder and a secured creditor of the company. Upon winding up, the liquidators argued that Mr. Salomon must not be considered as a secured creditor since he was in control of the company itself. But the Court’s decision recognized Mr. Salomon as a secured creditor since the company has a separate legal personality from the directors and shareholder upon its registration and it has nothing to do with Mr. Salomon being a secured creditor. Application Applying s119 corporations act, Easy Groceries Pty Ltd is a separate legal entity from its directors and shareholders, meaning that Easy Groceries Pty Ltd as a company itself is liable for the debts that occurred. Conclusion As an own legal entity...

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...‘Directors duties occupy a strange position in company law. They must be sufficiently strong so as to keep directors in line but sufficiently weak to allow directors to take risks. It is no wonder the courts can’t enforce them properly.’ Do you agree with the above statement? By any measure the 2006 Act is a momentous and monumental piece of legislation. The largest statute ever enacted by the Westminster Parliament, it has engineered the modernisation, consolidation and codification of the vast panoply of UK company law. The Act subsumed the compendious 1985 Companies Act, and the Companies Act 1989.The modernisation of UK company law necessitated reform, redrafting and reorganisation in many fields. The law relating to directors’ duties received particular attention. Indeed, it is submitted that the reforms made in the context of the law on directors’ duties constitute some of the most important and valuable innovations incorporated in the new Act. Under s.171 CA 2006 a director must act in accordance with the company’s constitution and only exercise powers for the purposes for which they are conferred. This was formerly known in the case law as the proper purpose rule. In the case of Hogg v Cramphorn Ltd the principle found was that it was not enough that the directors issued the shares in the honest belief that it was in the best interest of the company. Hence the power must have been exercised for its proper purpose. In Howard Smith Ltd v Ampol Petroleum Ltd the Supreme...

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Company Law

...they have been the victim of wrongdoing by those in a ‘majority’……….…………………...Pg 7 & 8 References………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….Pg 9 & 10 Introduction of the Case of Foss v. Harbottle The Victoria Park Company is a company had been established during September 1835. This company is to establish a residential area for the prosperous business and professional families to stay. This estate will be established to the east of Wilmslow Road. Richard Foss and Edward Starkie are the minority shareholders. A bill was lodged by 2 shareholders of the company that incorporated by Art of Parliament, on their own and the other shareholders’ behalf. In the case they claim that fraudulent transactions misapplying the company’s assets did by 3 bankruptcy directors, a solicitor, proprietor and architect, and take some unqualified people to put in board of director to make it full and a company without clerk or office, in this situation the proprietors has no rights to take out the property from the hand of defendant directors. Observations were made on this point of case is that the trust between the company and company promoters had arises. Void transaction is not necessarily to be created by the possible of avoiding a transaction. A company can select to apply the transaction later and hold the directors bound by them. If the act is given the power that authorized the transaction on mortgage then they can be confirmed. Although this act is the act beyond the power...

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