Eastern Educational Philosophies

Abstract Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism are compared for historical, ideology, and epistemology, searching for Eastern Philosophy compatible to Western Philosophy. A research for possible influences on Education of Philosophy discovered that it was impossible to bring comparisons and even difficult to separate them into the key issues. Colonialism and Nationalism brings the two philosophies together. Even though the Western mindset can appreciate the fascination concepts it may be impossible to blend East and West. However, it is possible to juxtapose the very different philosophies as it may be represented in the arts. Even Western Philosopher who have been influenced by Eastern Philosophy, it is reasonable to believe it is the philosophers attempt to interpret Eastern Philosophy. However, it is impossible to replicate it. Instead the product is a hybrid and independent of either East or West.

Eastern Educational Philosophies Eastern philosophy has a long and varied history. Asian ideas are among the oldest in the world. Great thinkers of the East have developed sophisticated cultural and political systems that have influenced other religions as well as western philosophy. This paper will examine ideological, epistemological, and historical differences in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Ways in which these philosophies have shaped higher education theory and practice are of major importance to educators.

Hinduism

Historical India’s earliest civilization, ca. 3000 to 1750 BCE, was in the Indus River Valley. Archeological findings conclude a preoccupation for symbols of fertility, and worship of a divinity similar to the Hindu God Shiva, an Earth Goddess, certain animals, trees, and positive symbols such as the swastika (Embree, 1988, p. 3). A second civilization appeared in the same area ca. 2000 BCE known as Endo-Europeans to which the Indian’s named “Aryans” (Embree, 1988, p. 4). The Aryans were responsible for the Vedas and Upanishads (p. 5). Many scholars believe the Bhagavad Gita and Bharata’s Natya Shāstra should also be included (Garfield, & Edelglass, 2011, p. 109).

Ideological After 1813 English reformers brought western education and customs to India. During the 19th century, higher education institutions increased. English curriculum eliminated Hindu culture. However, Sanskrit fascinated western scholars. Subsequently, Sanskrit re-entered higher education and “new dimensions were added to the ideology of Sanskrit education” (Brill, 1996, p. 389). Western educators sought to preserve Hindu tradition, which inspired the rise of Neo-Hinduism. Nationalism emerged during the 20th century. Political leaders like Gandhi popularized Sanskrit works, such as the Bhagavad Gita (Brill, 1996, p. 389). Sanskrit studies brought keen interests for, cultural, political, and spiritual revival and preservation of India’s heritage (p. 390).

Epistemological The Vedas (knowledge) and the Upanishads (secret doctrines) have a specific viewpoint toward life: an individual’s duty (dharma) is to liberate (moksha) oneself from the karmic (cause, effect) wheel of birth and death (reincarnation), and unite one’s true self with Brahman (God) or Absolute Reality. The Vedic hymns called for Aryanization: “to make people noble, to educate them, and to inculcate higher virtues and values in them” (Nigel, p. 14). The term Upanishad: “to sit down near” (Egenes, & Reddys, 2004, p. xv). Egenes et al suggest that everyone wants to sit next to the Vedas. They bring out one’s true Self (Ātmā) (p. xv). Hinduism is a dualistic system based on “differences in nature and origin, spirit and matter, or purusha and praruti” (Embree, 1988, p. 297). Mysticism is prevalent, which claims that Brahman or Absolute Reality can be obtained only through spiritual experience. Meditation, which links one to the spiritual world, is practiced daily.

Buddhism

Historical Gautama Buddha (ca. 560 – 480 BCE) lived his young life as a Hindu prince. As all noble boys, he was sent to study with famous religious teachers. After mastering the Brahman teachings, he believed his learning did not permanently end suffering. Subsequently, Gautama elected to give up his right to the throne and became an ascetic. Severe abuse and self-deprivation forced him to leave his penitent life and seek enlightenment another way. Gautama journeyed to Bodh, India. There, he sat under a Bodhi tree, meditated, and awakened. Gautama was transformed. He became the Buddha, enlightened. Buddha eliminated elements of Hinduism. He rejected the Vedas and ritual sacrifice. He challenged the priesthood and denied spiritual values based on birth (Singh, 2008).

Ideological Buddhist monasteries were grand with separate rooms for dinning, bathing, sleeping, and studying. Monasteries were used not only for religious purposes but also as centers for arts, crafts, paintings, etc. (Singh, p. 71). One major contribution of Buddhism was a number of magnificent universities. The most famous, University of Nālanda, was built during the 5th century. It attracted students from Tibet, China, Greece, and Persia. According to eyewitness account, its library was renown. A huge wall surrounded 10 monasteries, sacred groves, sitting on a bluff. The University thrived until ca. 1200, the Muslim invasion (Sharif, 2012 para. 2). Buddhist ideology spread as a religious and political system to China, Korea, Sri Lanka, Japan, and many other countries. Wright (2008) believes that Buddhism is an empire unto itself. He argues that Qianlong constituted the Chinese “Qing Empire (1644-1911) by furthering the religious-political and cultural ideologies with [Buddhist] ideology” (p. 4).

Epistemological Buddha focused problems of suffering, which he perceived as the cause of “attraction and aversion, and that the root cause of attraction and aversion is confusion regarding the fundamental nature of reality” (Garfield & Edelglass, 2011, p. 187). He offered a remedy to end suffering. His first doctrine was the Four Noble Truths: (1) Life is sorrowful (2) because of craving. (3) Cravings stopped. (4) Cure: Eight Fold Path: includes discipline, moral conduct, concentration, and meditation, led by a Buddhist monk. These four truths are the fundamental laws of morality, common to all Buddhism schools (Embree, 1988, p. 95). Some important concepts: all things transitory, no permanence, and no individuality. All things are classified into five combinations: form and matter, sensations, perceptions, psychic constructions, and consciousness. Achieving Nirvana can stop transmigration, rebirth. Without understanding Buddha’s truths, one will not find salvation (Embree, 1988, p. 95).

Confucianism

Historical The Confucian School was an intellectual, religious, and political movement founded by Confucius (551-478 BCE), in the 5th century BCE. He and his disciples considered themselves ru ji (scholarly tradition) He sought to reform government for the benefit of the people as well as developing virtue, particularly government officials. Confucianism supported respect for one’s elders, those in authority, traditional values, all ritual traditions, familial bonds, and education (Van Doan & Shen, 1991). The Analects a sacred text compiled by Confucius’ disciples after his death, is the best source for understanding Confucius philosophy. Ren (benevolence) is an idea introduced in the text. Confucius described ren as characteristics that all humans should realize. However, he believed this action was unending. Rituals were detailed ceremonies for performances of music and dance, greeting friends, eating, dressing, ancestors, and funerals. Rituals were devotional. It focused on reverence rather than on oneself and ultimately virtue (Riegel, 2012).

Ideological In the 4th century BCE, Mencius, a follower of Confucius, said that “those who used their minds ruled, and those who used their muscles were ruled” (Yi-tsi, 1987, p. 11). Mencius was not only referring to the “mind.” He was indicating “moral feelings” and intellect. Mencius expressed a traditional Confusion ideology, domination, and subordination. However, rather than separating the two aspects, Confucius connected them. The civil service examination, a scholar’s path to the hierarchical ruling class, required mastery of Confucian ideology. The scholar was connected to the state and served as an advisor. For centuries, a highly privileged scholarly elite attached to state ideology dominated Chinese society (Yi-tsi, 1988). The distinguishing characteristic of Confucianism was connecting the individual to the state, which defined politics “from the center of his moral being” (Yi-tsi, 1988, p. 12). Aspiring to become an elite moral being with a personal commitment to the state fortified Confucianism as an ideology that sustained the longest continued political system in history.

Epistemological Confucius believed that the role of the teacher was vital. He describes the responsibilities of the teacher: “To love him means not to let him indulge in comfort; to be loyal to him means to teach him” (Analects, 1994, p. 254). A teacher is “the sort of person who can be so diligent that he forgets his meals, so happy that he forgets his worries, and is even unaware of approaching old age” (p. 115). Confucius teaching “ritual” is not just teaching formal ritual, he is also revealing the spirit behind the ritual. Recognizing spirit is the basic core of Confucian education (Kapur & Kapur, 2008, p. 429). The sage is the model for Confucianism. The Analects stress the relationship between the gentleman and the sage. “I cannot expect to see a sage, but it is enough for me to see a gentleman” (Analects, 1994, p. 119). A sage is like a god in western terms. A human being can become a gentleman by perfecting the values and actions of a sage. A sage understands the Tao, the order of the universe, and natural phenomenon. Understanding natural phenomenon allows one to deal with human affairs. Knowledge establishes and maintains social order.

How Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism Shaped Higher Education

Theory and Practice Eastern Philosophy asserts that human nature is unpredictable. It is continually changing based on one’s environment and education. The fundamental goal of the student “is merging the essential self with the real Self” (Embree, 1988, p. 33). There are relationships between the personal and spiritual. The West is secular and concrete. The two do not appear compatible, unless, one observes Nationalism. Nationalism, at the beginning of the 20th century in India, developed a unified national economy. Nationalism included Western higher education. Consequently, Eastern Philosophy Western Education of Philosophy collided. Western scholars quickly recognized the sophistication of the Eastern mindset, its Sanskrit language as well as its ancient texts. With the help of Western educated scholars born in the East, Western academics translated Eastern Philosophy (Chakrabarty, p. 2). Eastern Philosophy entered Western higher education in India, Europe, the United States and other developing countries, as a focus of study. Eastern philosophical influences are noted in the visual and performing arts and across all Western educational disciplines. Since, Colonization, Philosophy of Education has been greatly influenced by the East.

Conclusion Hinduism has no boundaries between the sacred and non-sacred. Buddhism may be considered a continuation of Hinduism. Confucianism emphasized that knowing and acting should harmonize. There is a one-on-one relationship between the teacher and the student. The student lives with the teacher in a religious community. The teacher takes care of the student in a fatherly way. The student serves the teacher to show his respect. Confucian emphasizes education and teaching, especially through teaching rituals. In sum, Eastern Philosophy emphasizes harmony. There is less emphasis on controlling reality and more emphasis being a part of reality. Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism are religions, cultures, and a way of life. Eastern Philosophy focuses on mysticism and the spiritual. Western Philosophy focuses on secularism. Western Philosophy and Eastern Philosophy are not compatible. However, Western Philosophy can place Eastern Philosophy beside one another. It can represent forms of Eastern thought in aesthetics juxtaposed to each other. However, the catalyst is revealed in Colonialism and Nationalism, where Western Philosophy moves into an environment, steeped in Eastern Philosophy, and they in effect share ideas.

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