Heredity is defined as the transmission of genetic characters from parents to offspring

Professor Donald C
Biology 122
04/22/2013

Heredity Is Defined As The Transmission Of Genetic Characters From Parents To Offspring
Introduction
Anatomy refers to the science dealing with the description and identification of the structure of organs, tissues and organisms. It studies the body parts structures and how they relate with each other; it enables us to understand the relationship between the bones, muscles, ligaments and tendons. On the other hand, Physiology is the science which studies the functions of tissues, cell, organisms and organs. Physiology combines both physics and chemistry in its explanations. Physiology therefore, refers to the study of how the body functions.
The reproductive system of male organs is specialized for: the production, transportation and maintain the sperm (these are the male reproductive cells) and also included are the semen, which is the protective fluid. Another function for the male reproductive organs is to discharge the male reproductive cells into the female reproductive tract. They also secrete and produce male sex hormones.
The female anatomical structure is more complicated than the males’. There are many distinct anatomical structures comprising both internal and external tracts of the female genitalia; corpus spongiosum and labia minora (vestibular), urethra, G-spot, Halban’s fascia and peri-urethral glans, cervix, anteria erogenous zone and pubococcygeus muscle. Cutaneous blood vessels, nipples, sweat and salivary glands are some of the many peripheral non-genital anatomic structures in the response of female sexuality.

Analysis – empirical application
The vagina has a longitudinal outer and inner circular layer which is lined up by stratified a sub- dermal layer with so many capillaries and squamous epithelium. The vaginal has a wall consisting of inner glandular mucous, a stratified squamous cell which is supported by a lamina propia which is very thick. This epithelium must go through a hormone-related cyclical change which involves a slight keratinization in the menstrual cycle periods. There are smooth muscular is muscles which lie deep within the epithelium. To enhance the free expansion of the vagina during the sexual stimulation, there is a deeper surrounding layer of fiber just above the muscularis to provide the necessary structural support.
According to the Szollosi et al, (1972), the process by which primordial male germ cells known as spermatogonia go through meiosis so as to produce spermatozoa cells, is called Spermatogenesis. The first cells in this process are called the primary spermatocytes. These primary spermatocytes are divided into two secondary spermatocyte; and each then divided into spermatids. These then fully develop into sperm cells, otherwise known as spermatozoa. The four spermatozoa are as a result from the division of the primary spermatocyte which gave rise to the two secondary spermatocytes.
Oogenesis is the process of the formation of an egg cell or otherwise called ovum. It is astate of gametogenesis in females; spermatogenesis is the opposite and found in the males. The process involves the various developmental stages of an immature egg. In human beings and all mammals, the initial stage of oogenesis kicks off from the germinal epithelium. This gives rise to the ovarian follicles development, which is the functional unit of the ovary (Szollosi, et al, 1972); Absence of centrioles in the first and second meiotic spindles of mouse oocytes). As per Lobo (2003), "Early ovarian ageing, oogenesis kicks off with the development of oogonia process, this happens through the process of transforming of the primordial follicles into primary oocytes; this process is known as oocytogenesis. This process is complete before or just after birth.
Under the influence an elevated FSH in the formation of secondary follicles, approximately 12-20 begin developing at the beginning of the menstruation period. Primordial follicles enhance the formation of primary follicles, these primordial follicles start developing and between ten to thirty weeks after conception, they are would have fully formed. The rest of the follicles undergo cellular atresia, leaving only one secondary follicle which is health at approximately the ninth day of the cycle.
The follicle which is remaining, popularly referred to as the dominant one, in the late phase of follicular process, produces very huge amounts of estradiol. The union between granulosa cells and theca determines the production of Estradiol. On the 14th day of the menstruation, there is a surge of LH takes place; this is provoked by a positive estradiol feedback. Consequently, the development of the secondary one takes place in the tertiary follicle ovulation then takes place after one to one and half days. A very vital event in the follicle (tertiary one) development process happens after the initial meiotic division is completed by the primary oocyte; hence the production of secondary oocyte and a polar body. The corpus luteum releasing the progesterone hormone is formed by the empty follicle.
Fertilization in human beings is the fusion between a sperm and a female egg, it normally occurs in the ampulla of the urine tube. A zygote is a subsequent result of this union; this is a fertilized egg, hence the parental development initiation. The fertilization dynamics were discovered by scientists in the nineteenth century. (Johnson, F. (2005): An Introduction to the History of Medicine.
In this fertilization process, a sperm is fused with an ovum. The procedure is that during copulation, ejaculation takes place, ovulation follows and fertilization is the last to happen.
However, there are exceptions available to this sequential processes, this will be in a situation where artificial insemination is used, where copulation takes place shortly after ovulation or external ejaculation without copulation and In the Vitro fertilization. In the Vitro Fertilization is where the egg cells get fertilized by the outside the woman’s womb. After the sperm meets an ovum, a sperm’s acrosome produces enzymes which make it possible for it to burrow through an outer jelly-coat of the egg. At this stage, the egg’s plasma membrane is fused with the sperm’s plasma, and then there is a disconnection of the sperm’s head from the flagellum, then the egg journeys through Fallopian tube up to the uterus.
Inheritance refers to the use of a Pre-defined Code. This is the most common characteristic of OOP. Taking the advantage of Inheritance, the code previously created can be used. However, such code can only be used but cannot be changed. With the emergence of inheritance, a pre-defined code can be used and we are able to add a new code too. The predefined code exists in classes, and in order to use such code, then we must extend or inherit the class. There are three genetic code types for humans, this codes are unique and of diverse measures; allosomes, autosomes and mitochondria chromosome.
Autosome refers to all the chromosomes which are present in equal numbers in both the females and male. These autosomes have more information as compared to the other three generic code carriers. Autosomes have no deference in recombining in relation to gender: this being the case, an autosome inherited from a father could have a mix of material from both paternal grandfather and grandmother. Those with the inherited genes from the mother could be having equal contribution from the maternal grandparents.
Autosomes can be termed as genetic vehicles comprising the DNA from all the ancestors in proportion to their relatedness to an individual in question. The ratio for allosomes from mother and father is half-half.25% of the alleles in an individual’s allosomes are contributed by grandparents.
Human beings have 22 pairs of autosomes; this differs from dogs which have 38 pairs of autosomes. The mechanism of recessive and dominant heterozygous and alleles, is for the fact that autosomes come in pairs. For this very reason, the genes that benefit from hybrid vigor are autosomes. Autosomal are the genetic characteristics as opposed to sex linked chromosomes, are controlled by autosome genes. A process called cross over is where the male produce sperm and female produce eggs; in this process there is recombination of the autosomes they received from their parents. The process ensures that each egg and sperm has a unique set of chromosomal combination pair which is present in each parent. The essence is that both the egg and sperm get half pair and combine to form a complete pair.
The advances of the past decade in understanding factors that are friendly to cancer risks, has established that there are many environmental factors which have continued to pose as important instruments in explaining the differences in the biological behaviors of some cancers. For instance, they discovered that a diet’s nutrients may influence some key biological events—among them being processes involved in replication or transcription, cell cycle regulation, and immune-competence.
Even though occupational, recreational and environmental exposures to carcinogens increases the risks of cancer in humans, differences in how the cancer progresses in an individual is attributed to the variations in the individuals generic makeup.
In trying to establish the causes of schizophrenia, for decades it was thought that either environment or genetics was the main causal factor. Now, the most recent study shows that the two factors may be related; whereas an environmental factor may increase the chances of the risk for an individual who already possesses a genetic predisposition to schizophrenia.
The direct observation study of environmental and generic factors, interaction in the peri-natal phase was illustrated; it was observed that foetal hypoxia, which is an insult to the environment, was connected with increased fluid of the cerebrospinal and decreased grey matter in schizophrenia patients as well as their relatives. However, according to Cannon et al, (1993) the process was not carried out in people with high-risks.
The initiative for Human Genome is known all over the world for its efforts in research; with an objective of analyzing the DNA sequence in humans and the determination of the human genes location. The initiative began its operations in the US in 1990.The Human Genome project is currently estimated to be fully completed in 13 years; but initially, it was planned to be completed in a period of 15 years. The project was started with the objective of finding the 80,000 to about 100,000 human genes, also to establish the sequence of those 3 - billion chemical bases that constitute the human DNA.
The consequent information provided by the human genome project is highly anticipated to be the main book in the biomedical fields, this would include neurobiology and developmental biology; this is the field in which scientists and biologists are trying to understand the mechanisms of molecules.
This human genome project is immensely expected to benefit the medical science field. It will help scientists in understanding and the subsequent treatment of most of the 4000 genetically related diseases afflicting the humankind; and also the treatment of those diseases caused by genetic predisposition.
The human genome’s project new technologies will also be applicable in other fields like environmental sciences and agriculture. The genome of human has approximately 50,000 genes to 100,000 found on 23chromosomal pairs. In each pair is there is one chromosome inherited from the father, and the other from the mother. Each chromosome has a long DNA molecule; the genes are made from this molecule.
The content of the information of a specific DNA piece or gene; is determined by the order of the DNA strands which are on the four bases. The determination of the spacing and positioning of genes is done by a process known as Mapping. Mapping is done to other chromosomes which are related, (Guli and Smyth, 1988).

Conclusion
The female anatomical structure is more complicated than the males’. There are many distinct anatomical structures comprising both internal and external tracts of the female genitalia; corpus spongiosum and labia minora (vestibular), urethra, G-spot, Halban’s fascia and peri-urethral glans, cervix, anteria erogenous zone and pubococcygeus muscle. Cutaneous blood vessels, nipples, sweat and salivary glands are some of the many peripheral non-genital anatomic structures in the response of female sexuality.
It is agreed generally that the main ultimate objective off the Human Genome Initiative is the acquisition of the fundamental knowledge necessary to further the basic scientific knowledge on the role of the distinct genes in disease and health.

References
Manandhar, G., Schatten, H., and Sutovsky, P., (2005). Centrosome reduction during gametogenesis and its significance. Biol Reprod, 72(1)2-13.
Szollosi, D., Calarco, P., Donahue, R.P., (1972). Absence of centrioles in the first and second meiotic spindles of mouse oocytes. J Cell Sci 11(2):521-541. PMID: 5076360
Lobo, R.A,.(2003). "Early ovarian ageing: a hypothesis. Biol Reprod, 72(1)2-13.
Johnson J, Bagley J, Skaznik-Wikiel M, et al. (July 2005). "Oocyte generation in adult mammalian ovaries by putative germ cells in bone marrow and peripheral blood". Cell 122 (2): 303–15
Guli, CL, Smyth, D.R., (1988). UV-induced DNA repair is not detectable in pre-dictyate oocytes of the mouse. Mutat Res 208(2):115-119. PMID: 3380109