...|eliminating Kant’s “things-in-themselves” (external reality) and making the self, or the ego, the ultimate reality. Fichte | |maintained that the world is created by an absolute ego, which is conscious first of itself and only later of non-self, or the | |otherness of the world. The human will, a partial manifestation of self, gives human beings freedom to act. Friedrich Wilhelm | |Joseph von Schelling moved still further toward absolute idealism by construing objects or things as the works of the | |imagination and Nature as an all-embracing being, spiritual in character. Schelling became the leading philosopher of the | |movement known as romanticism, which in contrast to the Enlightenment placed its faith in feeling and the creative imagination | |rather than in reason. The romantic view of the divinity of nature influenced the American transcendentalist movement, led by | |poet and essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson. | |C | |1 | | | |Hegel ...
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...an important reason lies in the fact that Marxism originates from practice, guides the practice and is developed in the practice. Karl Marx is considered by many to have been the greatest thinker and philosopher of all time. His idea on life, society and social structure revolutionized the ways in which people think and still holds much relevance in today’s society. Although there were many downfalls within his thinking he still set out the basis of Communism within Russia. Marx drew distinctions between the bases of his own contemporaries and his own scientific theory of which he believed were firmly rooted within society. He believed that social change was needed in order to achieve a better society for everyone and in order to achieve social change there must be class conflict. Marx’s major concern for social change was economic change and his most famous work dealt with the issues of class conflict and the opposition between the capitalists/bourgeoisie and the working class. During that time it was the bourgeoisie who were responsible for the controlling of land and factories whereas it was the working classes who were being exploited by the higher classes. One of largest manuscripts that Marx produced was The Grundrisse which discussed issues such as the capital of labour, wages and property and was not published until after his passing. Marx is considered to be one of the founders of communism, modern socialism and sociology and...
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...A comparison between Adam Smith and Karl Marx The purpose of this essay is to evaluate and discuss how economists Adam Smith and Karl Marx contributed to current management practices and, more specifically, how they influenced the field of economics. Through critical analysis, we will explore the theories of Adam Smith and Karl Marx. Adam Smith’s contributions, from division of labor and the shift from a mercantile society to a capitalistic one as proposed in his “Wealth of nations report,” will be critically evaluated as to determine both their relevance today and the influence that they have had. Similarly, Karl Marx’s theories that helped to develop the economy in its most prosperous time will be critically evaluated to determine their influence and relevancy today. Although very distant in their theories and time, both men have played key roles in the development of economics, while in turn influencing current management practices. Both men were able to change and introduce new philosophies while reacting to the circumstances of their times, while creating legacies through their works that are still relevant in today’s vastly different circumstances and society. Adam Smith Scottish economist Adam Smith, born in 1723, is responsible for the initial development of economics in the eighteenth century and provided the framework for how we approach economic issues today. Smith was an “advocate for a free market society where international trade through both imports...
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...Enlightenment and how did it influence the politics of the 19th century? The Enlightenment was, in its simplest sense, a body of writers and writings of 18th century Europe which advocated reason and the belief in human rationality above all else and challenged long-standing values and institutions which were based on traditional and religious beliefs. The political ideas of the Enlightenment, which can be best understood against the backdrop of 18th century absolutism and the dominance of Christian world-views, denounced the ‘divine right of kings’ and called for reform in governance (Gieben and Hall, 1992:23). These were the ideas that influenced 19th century politics, and gradually led to the switch from all-powerful monarchies to the democracies of the modern world. In this essay I shall give a brief overview of the Enlightenment whilst focusing mainly on its political ideas and put these ideas in context by describing the political landscape of the time. I will then discuss how these political ideas shaped the politics of the 19th century. I will limit myself to looking at the influence of the Enlightenment on European politics as that is where its affect was most sharply felt and was the main location for the Enlightenment movement (Gieben and Hall,1992:72). The Enlightenment was the emergence of new ways of thinking which came about mainly in 18th century Europe, although Enlightenment ideas can also be seen in the 17th century, for example in the writings of Thomas Hobbes and...
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...previous sociologist, and expanding on to their known knowledge, thus fore leading to a more knowledgeable understanding of how our society and very own civilization works. Sociology enables us to understand the structure and dynamics of society, and their intricate connections to patterns of human behavior and individual life changes. It examines the ways in which the forms of social structure groups, organizations, communities, social categories, and various social institutions affect human attitudes, actions, and opportunities. Sociology doesn’t only focus on the study of our society; it also looks at the social lives of individual people, groups or people and entire cities; as well as expanding to the whole world. Sociology makes the studies of our social behaviors the focal point, whether they are short encounters between people that don't know each other or worldwide events that affect everyone in the planet, one way or another. It studies social behaviors of people from a scientific point of view; this is done to look at the groups and social circles that human’s transition through during the course of their whole lives. Overtime: mankind, psychology, history and also economics of a society are all studied and combined to get results that are able to be compared to one another. Comparing the major parts of a society will show how each study interact with one another, and their affects on the everyday life of any individual. Sociology is...
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...Karl Marx, philosopher, economist, historian and German sociologist was born to a Jewish family in Trier Germany on May 5th 1818. He devoted his life and his work in the practice of his theoretical analysis and grew to become the most influential socialist thinker of the 19th century. He founded with Friedrich Engels the scientific socialism and he is the initiator of the international labour movement. During his life, he wrote several manuscripts in which he predicted the collapse of industrial capitalism and its replacement by communism and his theory has resulted in the establishment of communist political systems in many countries. He also became a member of the Communist League. After that, he published the Communist Manifesto just before a wave of revolutions struck Europe. The Communist Manifesto opens with the famous sentence "The history of all hitherto societies has been the history of class struggles" This expression is the basis of the Manifesto and reveals two key points. First, different social classes emerge and oppose themselves throughout history: free man/slave, baron/serf, or more generally oppressor/oppressed. It therefore defines the existing classes, contemporary to the manifest, explaining (in order to demonstrate) their emergence and reality. The second point is considering the theme of the "struggle". When two classes are opposing, a continuous struggle is taking place in various forms. Its outcome is the revolutionary transformation or the disappearance...
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...The Effects of Philosophy From The Renaissance to the Modern Age Era Philosophy for most of Europe was latent throughout the entire Middle Ages which lasted nearly nine centuries. Medieval Philosophy was the only recognized and practiced philosophy during that time period. There were individuals during the Medieval time period that tried to preach different philosophies, however it was not something that was encouraged. If someone tried speaking publicly about a different way of life or theory on life, they were usually brutally chastised. When the Church began to restore power it helped to the “rebirth” of philosophy. Towards the late Middle Ages and beginning of the Renaissance era, there were several very influential philosophers’ starting to rise such as Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2012). It was philosophers like these men that contributed towards the rebirth of philosophy. The Church did have some involvement in this movement as well. It was then that the Churches began to rise against foreign enemies and stand up for their selves. They started to break out of the orthodox way of life they were used to. The Church showed people that there is still hope. That is when people started to bestow their selves in the Church and grasped on to the thought of change. Once people started to think for themselves, they began to realize there is more to life, and life may actually have a purpose. That is where philosophy...
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...body relies on the heart to pump blood round to other vital organs like the lungs and brain. Functionalists see society as being constructed of different inter-dependent components like the family and education system. So in the same way the human body would fail if the heart stopped, functionalists’ argue society would stop working properly if the family stopped functioning properly. Functionalists say this would happen because the family is an institution in which primary socialisation occurs. Primary socialisation is where younger members of a family are taught societies norms, values, roles and beliefs, By having the same values which we all share, a value consensus is establish. Therefore we can see the family has a function in the social system. This perspective of society differed from other sociologists of his era as Durkheim's theories were founded on things external in nature, as opposed to those internal in nature, such as the motivations and desires of individuals. According to Durkheim, collective consciousness, values, and rules are critical to a functional society. The functionalist perspective on the education system Functionalists focus on the...
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...Karl Marx (1818-83) grew up in Germany under the same conservative and oppressive conditions under which Kant and other German philosophers had to live. The Enlightenment had had some liberating effects on German life here and there, but most German principalities were still autocratic, and the idea of democracy was combated by all their rulers. The presence of police spies at major universities was a regular feature of German student life, and some students served long prison sentences for their political activism. As a law and philosophy student at the University of Berlin, Marx joined a political club that advocated political democracy. Very soon after receiving his doctorate, however, his ideas went beyond mere political reform. His future friend and collaborator Friedrich Engels introduced him to socialist and communist ideas, i. e., to ideas which progressed from mere political to social and economic reforms. For the rest of his life Marx dedicated himself to the project of radically restructuring modern industrial society along socialist and communist lines. In time he became the single most important theoretician and prominent leader of a growing international labor movement. Since Marx participated in the Revolution of 1848 as an influential newspaper editor (in a revolution that was defeated by the monarchists, and the defeat of which led scores of liberal Europeans to emigrate to the United States and elsewhere), he found it preferable to leave the stifling and backward...
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...Friedrich Nietzsche is one of the most well-known German philosophers and influential thinkers of the 19th century. He is considered one of the first existentialist philosophers and his work influenced many future philosophers. He undoubtedly had an impact on 19th century philosophy and that impact continues on even today. However, most of Nietzsche’s views went against the popular and conventional beliefs of his time. His ideas challenged Christianity, contemporary German culture and traditional morality, which as a result, created a great deal of controversy. Nietzsche is also one of the most misunderstood philosophers and his work is often misconstrued, never more than with the Nazis. The Nazis claimed that Nietzsche was one of their biggest inspirations. They had an attraction to Nietzsche's ideas, such as his attacks against Democracy, Christianity, and Parliamentary Governments. They took a lot their like-mindedness towards Nietzsche from his work The Will to Power. The controversy comes from whether or not this was Nietzsche’s intention or if his work was taken out of context by the Nazis for their own interpretation. Although Nietzsche may have had a similar attitude towards concepts such as religion, the will to power, and the idea of an Übermensch (Superhuman) that the Nazis coincided with, his work was not intended to be used in reference to, or in support of, Nazism and/or Fascism. The Nazis misused Nietzsche's philosophy, misinterpreted his views and distorted...
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...Pre-Socratic Period Thales of Miletus Background: Thales of Miletus (fl. c. 585 BC) is regarded as the father of philosophy. Thales of Miletus was considered one of the Seven Wise Men of ancient Greece. Thales was the first of the Greek natural philosophers and founder of the Ionian school of ancient Greek thinkers. Works/Writings/Philosophy: His is said to have measured the Egyptian pyramids and to have calculated the distance from shore of ships at sea using his knowledge of geometry. He also predicted an eclipse of the sun. In geometry Thales has been credited with the discovery of five theorems like the one that a triangle inscribed in a semicircle has a right angle. He tried to discover the substance from which everything in nature is made off and suggested water. Thales is important in bridging the worlds of myth and reason. He initiated the revolutionary notion that to understand the world one needed to know its nature and that there was an explanation for all phenomena in natural terms. That was a giant step from the assumptions of the old world that supernatural forces determined almost everything. While considering the effects of magnetism and static electricity, he concluded that the power to move other things without the mover itself changing was a characteristic of "life", so that a magnet and amber must therefore be alive in some way (in that they have animation or the power to act). If so, he argued, there is no difference between the living and the dead...
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...|Epistemology | |Ethics | |Logic | |Metaphysics | |Social philosophy | |Political philosophy | |Eras[show] | |Ancient | |Medieval | |Modern | |Contemporary | |Traditions[show] | |Analytic | |Continental | |Eastern | |Islamic | |Marxist | |Platonic | |Scholastic | |Philosophers[show] | |Aestheticians | |Epistemologists | |Ethicists | |Metaphysicians | |Logicians | |Social and political philosophers | |Literature[show] | |Aesthetics | |Epistemology...
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...In sociology, the iron cage is a term coined by Max Weber for the increased rationalization inherent in social life, particularly in Western capitalist societies. The "iron cage" thus traps individuals in systems based purely on teleological efficiency, rational calculation and control. Weber also described the bureaucratization of social order as "the polar night of icy darkness".[1] The original German term is stahlhartes Gehäuse; this was translated into "iron cage", an expression made familiar to English language speakers by Talcott Parsons in his 1930 translation of Weber's The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.[2] This translation has recently been questioned by certain sociologists and interpreted instead as the "shell as hard as steel".[2][3] Weber wrote: “ | In Baxter’s view the care for external goods should only lie on the shoulders of the 'saint like a light cloak, which can be thrown aside at any moment.' But fate decreed that the cloak should become an iron cage."[4] | ” | Weber became concerned with social actions and the subjective meaning that humans attach to their actions and interaction within specific social contexts. He also believed in idealism, which is the belief that we only know things because of the meanings that we apply to them. This led to his interest in power and authority in terms of bureaucracy and rationalization. Rationalization and bureaucracy[edit] Weber states, “the course of development involves… the bringing in of calculation...
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...Britain and the Soviet Union ended. An intense rivalry between communist and non-communist nations led to the Cold War. It's called the Cold War because it never led to armed or "hot" conflict. At the end of World War II, at the Yalta Conference, Germany was divided into four occupied zones controlled by Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States. Berlin was also divided into four sections. Lack of a mutual agreement on German re-unification was a important background of the Cold War. And on March 5, 1946, Winston Churchill, gave his "iron curtain" speech while at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, which marked the start of the Cold War. The cold war did not end until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. During this period, the United States and the USSR confronted each other in politics, economy, ideology, and so on. And they nearly divided this world into two camps, socialist camp and capitalist camp, what made the conflict on ideology especially sharp. Every incident in the world could not happened without reasons, and the original cause may happened quite long ago. So there are long term causes and short causes of the Cold War. One of the short term causes is that the US President had a personal dislike of the Soviet leader Josef Stalin. At the Potsdam Conference starting in late July 1945, serious differences emerged over the future development of Germany and Eastern Europe. At Potsdam, the US was represented by a new president, Harry S...
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...Art history From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the academic discipline of art history. For an overview of the history of art worldwide, see History of art. For other uses, see Art history (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2011) Venus de Milo on display at the Louvre Art history has historically been understood as the academic study of objects of art in their historical development and stylistic contexts, i.e. genre, design, format, and style.[1] This includes the "major" arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture as well as the "minor" arts of ceramics, furniture, and other decorative objects. As a term, art history (also history of art) encompasses several methods of studying the visual arts; in common usage referring to works of art and architecture. Aspects of the discipline worms. As the art historian Ernst Gombrich once observed, "the field of art history [is] much like Caesar's Gaul, divided in three parts inhabited by three different, though not necessarily hostile tribes: (i) the connoisseurs, (ii) the critics, and (iii) the academic art historians".[2] As a discipline, art history is distinguished from art criticism, which is concerned with establishing a relative artistic value upon individual works with respect to others of...
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