Gompa or monastery means a solitary place. Since the advent of Buddhism, it has been playing a central role in religious, political, military and civic activities of the communities that adopted Buddhism as religion. Historically, Buddhism had started to spread more as a way of education than a religion per se. So, in the initial days, gompas came up in two forms – Avasa (temporary in nature and more so in rural and nomadic settings) and Arama (more permanent and usually associated with urban settlements of that era). Typically, a gompa would start as a seat of learning where learned scholars would study, meditate and congregate for learned discussions. Some influential patrons would donate well to support the construction of a common hall for all such activities. It would also be usual to have a boundary wall around such halls. In return, scholars will then initiate such patrons and allow them to participate in learned discussion. Such a privilege was not allowed to commoners. As the populations grew and number of scholars and monks went up, such basic structures slowly and steadily evolved into gompas as we see today. In general, every gompa has religious, administrative, residential portions. Typically, a gompa will have the following structures:-
--Guha or Iha-khang or Main Sanctum. It will have Du-khang or assembly room and Go-khang/ La-khang or inner chamber. Inner chambers are generally out of bounds for ladies unless the deities inside are fully covered or the chamber itself is totally dark.
-- Hanumiya or administrative block will generally be multi-storeyed.
--Pasada or residential block which will also be multi-storeyed generally. Monks live in Viharas and Vihara of a head priest or Rinponche is referred to as Zimchung.
--Gon-khang houses weapons and masks and will generally be co-located with Guha.
Gompas have a big role to play in the lives of people who live around these monasteries. It is not unusual to find a village located on the foothills of gompas. Gompas control major chunks of lands, both cultivable and grazing pastures. The population that uses such lands, is duty bound to offer returns in cash or kind. Political as well as social life of the settlements is highly influenced by these gompas. As mentioned elsewhere in this diary, Monks or lamas, because of the control that they have over the population as also because of religious faith that the population has in them, enjoy privileged life-styles, as compared to public at large. Guru Gantal Gompa at Tandi, Keylong, is the oldest gompa in Indian Himalayas.
While it is usual to associate gompas with Buddhism, it may be interesting to note that Buddhism spread to Tibet from India rather than other way around. By second century, Kashmir had come under ever-increasing influence of Buddhism from central India. King Ashok had a big role to play in this vast spread of Buddhism. At that point of time, Tibet had a paganish religion, called Bon. As the Buddhism reached Ladakh through Kashmir, a phenomenon called First Spreading of Buddhism took place wherein Padmasambhava took this religion to Tibet. Unfortunately, while the new religion in Tibet was expanding, Indian mainland saw a steady decline of Buddhism. As a result, barring a few locations in central India and Ladakh, Buddhism simply gave way to more aggressive forms of other religions. While Ladakh clung to Buddhism, rest of the country gave up on it. Then came in the phase referred to as Second Spreading of Buddhism. This time, it came from Tibet into India. But owing to the process of evolution, a clash within Buddhism took place between native forms and the one that had made its way from Tibet. In the end, it acquired a commonality that is so much alive and in practice even today.
Buddhist Orders and Headgears There are a total of five Orders in Buddhism ( a few scholars recognise four orders....see ahead). These Orders are common to both Tibet and Ladakh. However, inter-se importance/dominance differs in both the regions. Here is a brief account of these Orders....
--Nying-ma-pa : This order was propagated by Padmasambhava who actually took Buddhism from India to Tibet during First Spreading of Buddhism in the second half of eighth century AD. Also referred to as Old School, this Order is known for first ever translation of Buddhist teachings from Sanskrit to Tibetan. Based on Indian Tantric teachings, this Orders centres around Book of Dead. There are two sects within this Order – White and Red Sangha. While Red Sangha means complete celibacy, the White Sangha adds practicality to this Order in the sense that latter does not imply strict celibacy. The practicality lies in the fact that followers can switch between these two sanghas as per requirements of life during different stages. This Order lays stress on solitary meditation and hermitages. Today, only one monastery in Ladakh follows this Order, ie, Thak-Thak Gompa (near Sakti) but this Order has an overwhelming presence in the Kham District of Eastern Tibet.
--Ka-gyu-pa : This Order is based on school of Oral Tradition (teachings of Indian Masters in line with Hindu Yoga Philosophy and originating from Nalanda University). This Order has its origin in newer Tantric teachings in 10th century AD though it hit prominence during 12th century. Since the teachings flowed orally from guru to disciple, this Order suffered huge distortions due to different personalities that carried forward the tradition. The two major Orders that flowed out of this Order are considered as second and third Orders though a few historians look at Ka-gyu-pa as one single Order (in such a case, there are only four Orders in Buddhism). The two Orders are as under:- -- Dri-gungpa : Lamayuru and Phiyang Gompas in Ladakh follow this Order.
-- Drug-pa : Also called Red Hats, this Order enjoyed the patronage of royal family of Ladakh. Hanle, Hemis, Chemrey and Stakna gompas follow this Order. Continued support from Namgyal rulers of Ladakh has helped this Order prospered through the centuries of its presence in Himalayas.
--Sasky-pa : Also referred to as Sakya-pa, this Order came into being in 11th century during translation of Sanskrit teachings into Tibetan. The first monastery of this Order came up in 1070s in Southern Tibet. This Order is associated with another Indian Master, Virupa and is inspired by yogic teachings. This is the smallest of all orders found in Ladakh. Matho is the only monastery that follows this Order and this gompa is also known for oracles.
--Ge-lugs-pa : Also referred to as Yellow Hats, this Order evolved from erstwhile Ka-dam-pa sect in 14th century. The first gompa of this Order was established in Gaden in Tibet. This Order dominates Central Tibet and was the most powerful in 16th century. In fact, it came into being on the pretext that all other Orders had been corrupted by then. This order played a significant role in second spreading when Buddhism re-entered Ladakh, this time from East. Gompas at Spituk, Tikhse and Likir follow this Order. Present Dalai Lama belongs to this Order.
In common references, all sects/orders other than Yellow Hats are referred to as Red Hats. One sect of Ka-gyu-pa Order is also sometimes referred to as Black Hats because of their religious head wearing black cap. It may be noted that these coloured hats are generally worn only during ceremonial functions. In day to day life, all monks wear brick coloured robes and it becomes impossible to make out as to which order anyone of them belongs to. Also, at a social level, there are no issues of inter-marrying between different orders. In fact, such an issue is not considered at all while interacting socially.
Also, old gompas of Lamayuru, Wanle, Mang-gyu and Sumda actually belonged to none of these orders, being older. They were then taken over by Yellow Hats except Lamayuru that went to Ka-gyu-pa.
Writing about headgears, it may be noted that even Muslims in Ladakh have a system of recognition based on headgears. Balti Shia Muslims dominate Kargil District and Chushot areas of Leh. In their community, Aghas (direct descendants of Prophet) wear black turbans. But those who have had the privilege of studying in Iran/Iraq, wear white turbans, on their return, and are referred to as Sheikhs.
Geography for Lay personnel Here is some geographical facts, made easy for travellers who love landscapes but hate looking at maps...
MOUNTAIN RANGES
When we look at Ladakh and journey into its highlands, we concern ourselves with seven mountain ranges. The rough layout of these watersheds and high ranges is as under:-

Starting first from South, Shivalik Ranges fall in the category of sub Himalayan or outer Himalayan ranges. These ranges are characterised by presence of round rocks and stones. The weight ratio of rocks to the mud is tilted in the favour of the former and therefore, these ranges are prone to landslides. This is a massive, 1650km long range that originates from Indus Valley in Pakistan and goes all the way to Sikkim where it finishes next to another river, Tista. Unlike other ranges in question, width of this range is not much and average height is in the range of 3500ft. Hills around Jammu, Udhampur, Pathankot, Pinjore, Dehradun, parts of Jim Corbett Park, Terai Hills, Chitwan in Nepal and further running eastwards form part of this range.
Dhauladhar Range, the abode of Lord Shiva, consists of thickly forested mountains with a characteristic mist and fog. It also falls in the category of outer or lesser Himalayas. Higher peaks receive fair amount of snowfall but it is the greenery of Deodar and Fir trees that makes this range so fascinating. Hanuman Ka Tibba at 18,525ft in Dharamsala area is the crown of this range while Mani Mahesh (Indian Kailash) is probably the most sacred of all in this range. Because of the height, this peak, like many other peaks of this range, remains snow clad. This range virtually begins (Dalhousie) and finishes in Himachal Pradesh (actually terminates at Badrinath in Garhwal). Steep dark granite slopes add a touch of class to this beautiful range that gets dissected by Bias River above Mandi. One distinct feature of the range is slate deposits. In fact, slate roof is a very normal sight in the villages of this range. The average height of the range is well above 5000m. Dalhousie, Mcleodganj, Chamba, Kangra Valley, Mandi, Khajiar, Bharmour and such areas lie in the foothills of this great range. Known for Gaddhis or Pahari people, this range intercepts monsoons twice an year, thereby, ensuring perpetual greenery for itself. This range actually connects physically with Pir Panjal Range near Chamba.
Pir Panjal is a 350-odd Km long range that rises from Kishanganga River basin in POK and merges with Dhauladhar Range in Himachal Pradesh. This range separates Jammu from Kashmir Valley, Ravi from Chandrabhagha basin as also Kullu from Lahaul. Jawahar Tunnel has been dug across this range that has an average height of approximately 13,000 ft. Its lesser length notwithstanding, it is a massive, dominating range with numerous peaks. Haji Pir, Pir Panjal, Banihal, Sythen, Sach and Rohtang Passes are located on this range. Belonging to the category of middle or inner Himalayas, this range boasts of Muree, Gulmarg, Uri bowl, Poonch, Kashmir Valley, Kishtwar, Lahaul and Manali that are situated on either side of it. With the on-going work on Mughal Road, another passage, in addition to passes enumerated above, via Pir Gali Pass, is under construction. (Some more about this range ahead...)
Great Himalayan Range (GHR) originates from Great Karakoram Range at Burzi Bal in PoK. It then runs Southeast towards Zoji La via three major passes, viz, Mir Panzil Pass (North of famous hill station of Minimarg in Pok), Karobal Gali (one of the major sources of water for Kishan Ganga River) and Bot Gulan Kanj Pass (in the North of Sonamarg; from here, a branch of Pir Panjal Ranges runs westward overlooking Kangan and beyond). Zoji La, by the way, is not a typical pass in a classical sense. It is just a step from lower base of Kashmir into the highlands of Ladakh. As the range moves down South, at a point that is around 10 kms Northeast of Panjtarni (Amarnath pilgrimage fame), a branch of Pir Panjal Range takes off towards Southeast. (This branch would finally go down to Banihal and beyond via Rangwar and Agashmandal. From Agashmandal, one more branch of Pir Panjal would go Southeast to Kandi Pass at Tirtu, just North of our favourite Sach Pass. From Tirtu, it turns Northeastwards to meet Great Himalayan Range once again, at Kangla Jot (South of Padam and North of Chamba). GHR that has been running West and South of road Kargil-Padum, now continues from Kangla Jot in a Southeast direction towards Baralacha La and beyond towards Spiti, thus forming a barrier between Ladakh and Spiti. It would then enter Tibet and having given passage to Sutluj River on Indo-Tibetan border, it continues into Tibet, Nepal and beyond. Some of the world’s highest peaks, including Mt Everest, lie on this massive range. Within Ladakh, Nun Kun are the highest peaks of this range and Umasi La pass that joins Zanskar with Kishtwar (Paddar), also lies on this mighty range. Umba La that separates Drass from Suru Valley also lies on one of its branch that runs parallel and South of road Zoji La-Drass-Kargil. Keylong, Jispa, Darcha, Patseo and Zingzing Bar are thus sandwiched between Pir Panjal and GHR. The average height of GHR with in Ladakh is around 17000 ft.

Zanskar Range takes off from Ladakh Range at a point East of Chorbat La, approximately 20 Kms due North of Dah-Hanu. It runs due South, crosses Indus at Biamah and down to Fotu La on NH. From here, one branch keeps going down South to Lingshet before turning Southeast and getting cut by Zanskar River coming from Padum, at a point just East of Parfi La. There after, it continues South-eastward via Namcha La, Morang La before turning back towards Northeast and then Southwest towards Phise La before hitting Great Himalayan Range perpendicularly at a point approximately 15 Kms West of Baralacha La. One more branch, the one which is more visible to travellers, bifurcates from Lamayuru near Fotu La and moves Southeast towards Chilling, overlooking Markha Valley. This branch is the one that is seen across Indus when one travels on the NH joining Kargil with Leh. This branch also separates Markha River basin from that of Indus. Zanskar River cuts through it at Chiling. Stok Kangri Range lies on this branch or rather this is how it is referred to as it inches close to Leh. Hemis gompa, Tanglang La, Lungalacha La, Tso Kar, Tso Tazangkuru, Tso Moriri, Chumur, Hanle are the famous landmarks on this branch. As it travels to Tibet, it remains to West of road Loma- Hanle and crosses over to Tibet in the South of Hanle. Lofty mountains of this range remain snow clad for most part of the year but this phenomenon is more because of freezing temperatures that preserve ice for longer periods than a very heavy snowfall that Great Himalayan Range receives. Thus, between Zanskar and Great Himalayan Ranges, lie Korzok, Sarchu and Pang. The average height of the range hovers around 15,000 ft.

Ladakh Range, that majestic series of peaks immediately to the North of Leh town, actually takes off Great Karakoram Range in Northeast of Ganse La in Skardu (PoK). It then runs down to Chorbat La (from where Zanskar Range begins) and turns Eastward to Khaltse, remaining to North of Indus all this while. Its main ridge then runs North of Saspol and Likir via Niming and passes like Wuleh La, Lago La and Nia La (these passes separate Likir area from Nubra), further down to Khardung La, Digar La, Wari La and Chang La. At Chang La, it bifurcates into two branches. The one running to the Northeast, travels to Tsoltak and Durbukh before joining Pangong Mountain that cuts it perpendicularly and shields Shyok River that is further to its North. The second branch is much more elongated and it takes off in South-easterly direction from Chang La towards Chhachan Hills, South of Tangtse-Chushul road. This branch separates rd Upshi-Nyoma from road Tangtse-Chushul-Nyoma. Chumathang lies on its Southern edge while Chushul, Rezangla, Tara lie on its Northern edge. This range makes a rounded arc as it gets intercepted by Indus at Pibuk-Loma-Nyoma area. Hanle River joins Indus at Loma. This branch, thereafter, runs South-eastward across Indus, into Hanle plains. Demchok would be on its Eastern side while Rongo, road to Hanle and Hanle bowl remain to its South. Once in Tibet, it will join Kailash Range from where Indus originates. Pangong Mountain is a subsidiary of this branch of Ladakh Range. It runs parallel to this branch, separated by road Tangtse-Chushul. This mountain originates from Ahagam near Khalsar in Shyok/ Nubra Valley, just North of Digar Village. It then runs parallel and South of Shyok River till Tangtse. Remaining South to Pangong Tso lake (Pagal Nallah originates in it), it dominates Chushul Plains from North. At Chushul, it bifurcates into two branches. The one running due East to Tibet, separates Pangong Tso from Spanggur Tso while the one running Southeast, separates Spanggur Tso from Chushul plains and Rezangla as also road Chushul-Nyoma.

The Great Karakoram Range originates in Baltistan with K2 as world’s second highest peak located in PoK. Portion of this mighty range that comes to Ladakh is actually not as grand as rest of the range. Saser Kangri at 7672m is its crown in Ladakh. But Ladakh Karakoram boasts of one of the greatest glacier systems of the world. Ladakh Karakoram branch shares its origin with GHR at Burzi Bal in PoK. From its origin, it initially runs Southeast and then Northeast towards Kharmang-Gund areas in the South of Skardu (PoK). A little further to the East, it gives rise to Ladakh Range (that will, in turn, give birth to Zanskar Range some 40 odd kms down South) in general area Ganse La. Thereafter, it moves East on North of Shyok River, facing Northern edge of Ladakh Range that runs South of this river. It encompasses Saltoro Hills (Siachin), Saser Kangri group, Chushku, Muztagh and Kunzang groups of mountains and glaciers before getting intercepted by huge loop of Shyok River flowing from North. Across the river, lies the inhabited and probably the most desolate, harshest and remotest areas of Aksaichin to include Kugrang Glacier, Galwan River and Lingzi Tang. However, Southern portions of this plateau, across Chang Chenmo River, have some settlements that are accessible only via mighty Marsimek La on Chenmo Mountain Range that lies North of Phobrang and Pangong Tso. This range separates Ladakh from Central Eastern Asia, basically Sinkiang Province (Yarkand and Khotan cities) of China. Nubra valley as well as Siachin Glacier lie between Ladakh and Karakoram Ranges.

RIVERS

Indus River enters Ladakh at Demchok, a moving settlement of Changpas, 250 odd Kms Southeast of Leh. It then flows along the foot of Ladakh/Kailash Range as it cuts through a gorge before easing into plains to the West of Nyoma. It is joined by Hanle River (flowing from South) at Loma. It then flows westwards through Chumathang before it is joined by Gya River flowing from Tanglung La (Rumtse) at Upshi. West of Upshi, it flows along Kharu, Leh, Pathar Sahab and along NH before a bigger, wider and more voluminous Zanskar River joins it from South at Nimu. Much swollen and mightier now, it keeps flowing towards Khaltse where it leaves the alignment of Leh-Srinagar Highway and swings northwards to Biama, Batalik and beyond. Suru River from Kargil to the South, joins it at Marol in Baltistan (POK). It would meet Nubra River further North at Keris. Contrary to popular belief, Indus does not originate from Kailash Mansarovar per se. Its origin lies in a source that is further East of Kailash. It does, however, during its initial journey, post birth, goes around the great Kailash peak in a literal sense before assuming its course towards Ladakh.
Zanskar River owes its birth to two rivers that flow from two opposite directions before meeting each other just North of Padum in Zanskar Valley. The first river, Lungnak, starts as Tsarap River in Rupshu Valley in the East (Travellers would cross this river a few North of Sarchu. In fact, after leaving Sarchu for Leh, one travels along this river (to our left) for a few Kms before crossing and then travelling along it once again. This time, river is again to the left because road makes a huge U during its progression towards North. Another river, Lingti, joins it North of Great Himalayn Range and Baralacha La and then it turns Northwest where it cuts and runs through a gorge on its way to Zanskar Valley. Just below Phugtal Gompa, it turns Southward where another river from Shingo La, called Kargiakh River, joins its volume. Lungnak River now flows through a narrow, deep gorge before opening up a bit just short of Padum. The second river is called Doda or Stod River. It originates from Drang-drung Glacier (Travellers would see it on to right after crossing Pansi La while travelling from Kargil to Zanskar) and then flows towards Padum to South. It is joined by Lungnak River near Padum and the new river, called Zanskar River, now flows Northwards to Nimu where it loses its identity when it joins Indus. It is a bit unfair because Indus, in spite of being a smaller river, retains its name while a mightier Zanskar loses it.
Shyok River originates in Saser Brangsa area of Great Karakoram Range. It flows South-southeast into India, before getting blocked, head on, by Pangong Mountain Range at Shirshak, some distance Southeast of Shyok village. The course now changes towards Northwest and it flows past Shyok village, Thangkar and Khalsar before getting joined by Nubra River at Tegur, Northeast of Diskit. Post confluence, it continues flowing in North-easterly direction towards Chalunka and Turtuk before crossing over to PoK to meet Indus at Keris in Batalik.
HIGHGROUNDS
Changthang or Northern Plains (with respect to Tibet and not Ladakh) continue from Northern plateau of Tibet. The greatest feature of these plains is the natural beauty. Changthang Plateau has no great slopes at ground levels and water flowing down from mountains or resulting from melting snows, does not find a viable outlet. As a result, it tends to settle down into water bodies of different sizes. The biggest of all is Pangong Tso that is spread over an area of approximately 850 square Kms and is located at a height of 4300m.