Learning difficulties – Dyslexia

On 7th November 1896, the first description of dyslexia was published in the British Medical Journal, described as ‘a case of congenital world blindness’ by a Sussex GP, Dr Pringle Morgan (Ott, 1997:6). Morgan’s study was surrounded around a child called Percy. ‘... In spite of [...] laborious and persistent training, he can only with difficulty spell out words of one syllable’. His head teacher claimed he could have been one of the smartest children within the school if the instruction was entirely oral not written (Squires & McKeown, 2006:1). The National institute of Child Health and Human development (NICHD), 2002, define dyslexia as ‘a specific learning disability that is neurological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a cognitive deficit or imperfection in the phonological component of language ‘that [are] often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction’ (Nicolson & Fawcett, 2008:11). Secondary consequences may include problems in reading, comprehension and a reduced writing level which can impede the growth of vocabulary and background knowledge (Flora, 2009:4). There is no universal definition surrounding dyslexia, but it is now an officially recognised learning disability under the disability legislation: SENDA 2001(for schools), Equality Act (2010).

Dyslexia is associated with constitutional factors and, on average; ten per cent of the British population are dyslexic, of which four per cent suffer severely. (British Dyslexia Association, About Us: 2011). Dyslexia has a neurobiological basis which inevitably means that the brain functions contrarily to the ‘average person,’ owing to the fact that dyslexic people have difficulty in processing certain types of information.

According to the NHS, if a parent has dyslexia, there is 40-60% likelihood that their child will also develop this learning condition (NHS Choices, Causes of Dyslexia: 2009). Studies have implied that certain genes may contribute to dyslexia, but researchers are still unsure as to how these genes effect brain development. Reading and phonological processing tasks are frequently associated with increased levels of activity within the left temporal and parietal areas for normal readers. More bilateral activation is present within dyslexics, thus suggesting subtle anatomical and functional differences in the brain (Meadows, 2006:44). For productive learning, a healthy diet needs to be present. A non-nutritional diet can indirectly effect concentration and behaviour. Research suggests that some dyslexics lack natural production of essential nutritional ingredients, therefore decreasing their learning ability.

Symptoms of dyslexia can be present from a young age. Brian Gym considers the theory that children, who have difficulty cross crawling, may not have learnt how to ‘internalise cross-motor patterning and therefore have difficulty [when] reading in reading [as] the same bilateral integration is required’ (Poole, 2008:63). Researchers, who have studied the left hand side of the brain including the broca’s area, the parietotemportal and occipitotemporal region, have shown that whilst dyslexic people are trying to read, lower activity levels are present in comparison to others. This study can explain why people with dyslexia suffer from poor phonological processing. These parts of the brain are suspected to have a high level of plasticity, which means that they can be remodelled if the appropriate treatment and training is provided.

Many problems can arise whilst labelling a child as dyslexic. How you define ‘what constitutes as “normal intelligence” [or the amount of] difficulty in learning to read and write [that] has to be manifested before a child’ is labelled with this learning difficulty and supplied with the correct support, can be seen as unethical and prejudice (Ellis, 1993:94). The theory that ‘specific reading disability or dyslexia is a sex-linked hereditary condition’ is supported by multiple studies (Gross, et al, 1982:67). These facts relate to referrals which could imply that there is a gender bias towards boys than girls, as they are more commonly elected to undergo the dyslexia test. Children from lower classes are also more commonly labelled than upper class pupils due to their lower IQ scores. Their under achievement may be due to social causes through lack of resources or their parents deficiency of schooling. Children, who do not receive adequate support or encouragement at home with homework or suffer with other social/material deprivation matter, can fail to reach their full potential and therefore fall behind with school work.

During a child’s early years, it is inappropriate to diagnose a child as dyslexic under the age of six. Formal teaching methods for reading, writing and spelling are not suitable to help children of this age group to overcome this learning difficulty. Through the observations of a child’s development, noticeable signs of this learning difficulty can be evident through their struggle of word order, reading or writing. Where children are representing dyslexic tendencies, activities that encourage ‘balance, control, and movements have been shown to be beneficial as it is thought [that] physical activities and a play-based approach to learning’ can emphasise a child’s learning progress (Tassoni, 2003:205). Comprehensive assessments completed by educational psychologists can also help to identify a child’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses, who would suggest recommendations or other forms of specialised help if appropriate, such as speech pathologist or occupational therapists or one to one learning.

The British Dyslexia Association (BDA) was founded on the 17th November 1972 with the ambition to develop people’s understanding of dyslexia. It is an independently registered charity which works to ensure that an individual who suffers from this learning difficulty, are provided with the correct support and information needed so they can strive to reach their full potential. Various local education authorities have embarked on the mission to ensure main stream schools promote access to a broad and balanced curriculum for all special education needs pupils which is accredited by the British Dyslexia Association (Squire & McKeown, 2006:2)

The British Dyslexia Association is run by volunteers who offer free support for teachers, parents or individuals who seek information and guidance about this learning difficulty. On average, the charity holds on average five hundred meetings and workshops with knowledgeable speakers throughout the year. Training courses for teachers, parents and employers on the effective methods for supporting dyslexic individuals are also available. Furthermore the association offers assessment exams at multiple local facilities or diagnostic exams online. These exams allow individuals to establish their strengths and weaknesses, which can be valuable for everyday life. In addition to selling and loaning literature and other useful resources, event days are also commonly set up through this organisation. Through these means, funding supports their ongoing support and research.

For teachers, the British Dyslexia Association ensures they are trained adequately so they are able to identify early signs of dyslexia. They also pride themselves on how to support a child, in order to ensure that they do not fall behind within education. Teachers who can recognise and apply the appropriate intervention can ameliorate a child’s education. Dyslexics can learn to accommodate effective learning strategies depending on their personality and type of support they receive from both home and school. ‘Usually, the discrepancy of 20 percent, roughly two years between ability and attainment in literacy, is the trigger for ‘specialist’ help. The earlier the intervention the more effective it can be, and should begin in Reception or Year 1’ (Wallace & Eriksson 2006:221). The dyslexic spectrums are conditions where a person has severe difficulty learning to read and spell. Despite this, on average, ten percent of dyslexics are in the gifted and talented range. Teachers who have a high understanding on the subject of complexities of learning disabilities, are more likely to deliver a diagnostic assessment rather than relying on referrals to Educational Psychologists. In consequence the delay between identification and response is kept to a minimum’ (British Dyslexia Association, Good Practice: 2013).

Within the classroom, there are many ways in which the teacher can help to maximise a child’s potential by implementing adequate support throughout their lessons. Teachers need to ensure that frequent assessments and monitoring of a child’s progress is put into action continuously throughout the year, and provide support whenever necessary. In the first instance, teachers can outline the aims and objectives of the lesson, and then conclude the lesson with a plenary. By outlining the lesson objectives into small easily memorable pieces of information, individuals can create goals whilst having a basic understanding of how to reach them. The application of recapping allows children to personally evaluate their own strengths and weakness and can help transfer the information they have learnt from short term to long term memory. Teachers can also create a daily check list for the pupil to refer to each evening. Through the encouragement of daily study routines, the development of the child’s own self-reliance and responsibilities can be increased. Although dyslexic individuals will always experience difficulties throughout their lives, the majority develop strategies that can help them to adapt.

Many children, who suffer from dyslexia, often have poor visual memory. To minimise their disadvantages, ‘note taking should be kept to a minimum and hand-outs offered as a replacement. [...] Many perceived learning difficulties respond to classroom based fine tuning delivered by dyslexic aware and well trained class and subject teachers’ (British Dyslexia Association, Good Practice: 2013). Abbreviations or glossaries should also be avoided whenever possible in order to help children who suffer from poor short term memory. Careful organisational skills within the classroom are beneficial when a teacher applies them effectively. Children who suffer from dyslexia and other learning difficulties are advised to be sat near the front of the class near the teacher. The British Dyslexia Association also encourages teachers to sit struggling children next to quiet children who will not distract the child, but assist them during their difficulties.

Whilst using handouts, white, thin paper should be avoided. Dyslexics can find it difficult to read off white paper or backgrounds due to the ‘glare’, which in turn, can ‘lead to eyestrain and headaches’ (Chivers, 2006:66). By using cream of soft pastel coloured backgrounds, alongside evenly spaced friendly fonts, the visual stress experienced by many dyslexics can be minimised. On average size 12-14 font should be applicable, but a minority of students may require larger.

Whilst giving instructions, they should be explained clearly in short, simple sentences in a direct style. Common teaching strategies that pair nouns with literal visual explanations can be used when explaining more complex verbal concepts to children with dyslexia. ‘As verbal information becomes more demanding, it is likely that visual explanations will also become more complex. It is therefore important to understand how visual cues can be used to reduce ambiguity and to create meaning in visual explanations’ (Stapleton, & Howse & Lee, 2008:430).

There are many other ways in which effective strategies can be employed within the classroom to help children who suffer from dyslexia; the main factors that need to be constantly considered are reviewed within this essay. Although dyslexia is a learning difficulty that cannot be ‘grown out of’, there are many ways in which individuals can be supported throughout their life in order to ensure they reach their full potential. Every child is different, and so are their learning preferences and strengths and weakness’. Within school, it is vital that a teacher understands each child personally, and provides the necessary support that will best benefit that person.