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Martin Luther King Leadership Style

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FALSAFAH POLITIK GANDHI

Ghandi mempunyai falsafah politik yang agak unik berbanding tokoh-tokoh falsafah terkemuka yang lain. Secara umumnya, falsafah politik beliau banyak berkisar kepada konsep Satyagraha yang digunakan untuk menentang penjajah British. Perjuangannya memberi keutamaan kepada bantahan awam ( civil disobedience), tindakan langsung (direct action), bantahan tanpa keganasan (non-violent resistance) dan bantahan secara pasif ( passive resistance). Bantahan awam bermaksud sebarang tindakan rakyat yang sengaja melanggar sesuatu undang-undang negara untuk memprotes kerasionalan undang-undang tersebut tanpa melibatkan sebarang bentuk keganasan dan pertumpahan darah. Pelaksanaan bantahan awam ini memerlukan pengorbanan dan keberanian yang tinggi untuk merelakan diri ditangkap atau dihukum sebagai akibat melanggar undang-undang negara.

Konsep tindakan langsung pula merujuk kepada sebarang tindakan untuk mencapai objektif politik yang dilakukan di luar perlembagaan dan tanpa mengira undang-undang (Saliha Hassan 1999). Tindakan secara langsung ini telah dilaksanakan oleh pejuang-pejuang kemerdekaan India untuk membebaskan tanah air mereka daripada penjajahan British. Namun demikian, Ghandi mengambil pendekatan tindakan langsung untuk dilaksanakan secara aman sebagai satu bentuk bantahan awam. Bantahan secara pasif ialah tindakan awam yang lebih luas melibatkan setiap individu dan tidak hanya bergerak secara berkumpulan. Setiap individu dapat memainkan peranan membantah secara pasif seperti memulaukan majlis-majlis rasmi kerajaan, melancarkan mogok, enggan bekerjasama kepada sebarang pihak berkuasa kerajaan, tidak menyertai aktiviti anjuran kerajaan dan sebagainya.

Falsafah politiknya banyak dipengaruhi oleh ajaran-ajaran dan prinsip-prinsip yang terkandung di dalam ajaran Kitab Hindu iaitu Bhagavad Gita. Diantara prinsip-prinsip tersebut ialah Samakhava yang bermaksud manusia tidak boleh membiarkan diri mereka terganggu akibat keseronokan atau kesakitan dan Aparigraha yang bermaksud tidak memiliki harta duniawi, tidak berkeinginan dan kekayaan boleh dikecapi dengan kekuatan rohani. Seterusnya ialah Ahimsa yang bermaksud tanpa kekerasan terhadap sesuatu yang bernyawa. Gandhi telah mempraktikkan ketiga-tiga prinsip tersebut dalam kehidupannya untuk mencapai matlamat agung ‘Satyagraha’. Hal ini dapat dibuktikan dengan kezuhudan hidup Gandhi yang langsung tidak mempunyai harta kemewahan melainkan sepasang capal, sebuah jam murah bersalut nikel, sepasang cermin mata, mangkuk, sudu dan buku puisi.

Selain itu, untuk memperlihatkan kesungguhannya mengamalkan prinsip Aparigraha, beliau telah mengangkat sumpah Brahmacarya iaitu menghentikan segala perhubungan kelamin dengan isterinya Kasturbai. Gandhi merasakan perlu untuk dirinya menjauhi segala keinginan fizikal untuk mencapai ketenteraman rohani dan bebas dalam segala keadaan untuk menolong orang lain serta bertindak dengan kasih sayang setiap masa. Gandhi turut menghindarkan diri daripada memakan makhluk bernyawa apatah lagi mencederakannya. Gandhi adalah seorang vegetarian sejak berusia kanak-kanak lagi kerana telah mewarisi tradisi keluarganya yang berpegang teguh kepada ajaran Hindu. Gandhi amat mendalami prinsip Ahimsa sehinggakan ular berbisa yang masuk ke rumahnya hanya dihalau secara lembut dengan sebatang kayu.

Konsep Satyagraha
Satyagraha bermaksud kuasa kebenaran atau kuasa kasih sayang. Konsep ini lebih dilihat sebagai perjuangan kearah kebenaran. Kebenaran ditegakkan tanpa menyebabkan penderitaan kepada pihak lawan sebaliknya menanggung sendiri penderitaan tersebut. Pihak lawan mesti dibetulkan dengan kesabaran dan simpati kerana Gandhi menganggap pihak musuh juga adalah individu-individu yang mencari kebenaran. Falsafah Satyagraha ini telah dicipta oleh Gandhi semasa beliau berjuang menghadapi dasar Apertheid di Afrika Selatan. Beliau telah berkhidmat sebagai peguam selama 21 tahun di negara malang tersebut. Pelbagai dugaan dan ujian berat terpaksa dihadapinya semasa meneruskan kelangsungan hidup di sana. Beliau pernah dipukul oleh pemandu kereta api kerana enggan memberi tempat duduk kepada penumpang kulit putih. Beliau juga pernah dihalau keluar daripada gerabak kelas pertama disebabkan seorang wanita kulit putih yang enggan berkongsi petak dengan seorang India berkulit perang. Beliau juga dihalau keluar dari kedai gunting rambut orang kulit putih menyebabkan hatinya benar-benar hancur.

Pada bulan Ogos tahun 1907, Akta Hitam telah diperkenalkan untuk memastikan semua orang India yang bermigrasi ke Afrika Selatan di daftar dan diambil cap jari. Sesiapa yang didapati tidak mendaftar akan dipenjarakan, didenda dan dihantar pulang ke negara asal. Masyarakat India mendapati akta ini tidak adil dan ditujukan hanya kepada orang berkulit hitam dan minoriti asia sahaja sedangkan masyarakat kulit putih tidak dikenakan sebarang pendaftaran. Hal yang demikian menyebabkan beliau berikhtiar cara yang terbaik untuk meneruskan kelangsungan hidup kaum kulit hitam termasuk masyarakat India yang berjumlah 100 ribu orang di Afrika Selatan. Oleh kerana Gandhi merupakan seorang yang taat kepada ajaran agamanya, maka beliau telah mencari formula yang terbaik untuk menyelesaikan masalah penindasan kaum di Afrika Selatan dengan berpandukan kitab suci agama Hindu. Akhirnya beliau berjaya menghasilkan sebuah konsep ‘Satyagraha’ sebagai strategi untuk menghadapi kekejaman Apertheid di Afrika Selatan. Beliau merangka peraturan-peraturan tegas tentang bagaimana ahli Satyagraha perlu bertindak. Mereka tidak boleh membalas walaupun dipukul, dihina dan dipenjara. Kekejaman pihak lawan dihadapi dengan tabah dan sabar. Tindakan tersebut adalah bertujuan untuk menjatuhkan maruah lawan dan melembutkan hati mereka.

Satyagraha di Afrika Selatan dilaksanakan dengan tidak mengadakan sebarang kerjasama dengan pihak pemerintah kolonial. Akta Hitam yang diperkenalkan turut diingkari oleh setiap masyarakat kulit hitam termasuk Gandhi sehingga menyebabkan beliau terpaksa meringkuk di dalam penjara selama dua bulan. Gandhi berasa senang hati dihukum penjara kerana menurutnya, “Jalan sebenar untuk mencapai kebahagiaan mutlak ialah dipenjarakan dan merasai penderitaan di penjara demi kepentingan negara dan agama”. Beliau turut bersyukur kerana diberi peluang untuk berfikir dan membaca dengan tenang. Akhirnya pada bulan Jun tahun 1914, Gandhi dan Jeneral Smuth, pemimpin dan negarawan kaum kulit putih Afrika Selatan, telah berbincang untuk mencari penyelesaian yang akan memberi masyarakat India sedikit kebebasan dan kehormatan diri. Perbincangan ini telah meluluskan Akta Pembebasan Orang India dimana ianya memberi kelonggaran kepada imigran India pulang ke negara asal. Ternyata kempen Satyagraha yang diperjuangkan Gandhi selama 20 tahun di Afrika Selatan telah membuahkan hasil di penghujungnya.

Konsep Bantahan Awam ( Civil Disobedience)
Konsep ini sangat berkait rapat dengan konsep Satyagraha dan Ahimsa. Bantahan awam bermaksud sebarang tindakan rakyat yang sengaja melanggar undang-undang negara bertujuan membuktikan ketidakrelevenan undang-undang tersebut tanpa menggunakan kekerasan. Bantahan awam yang dipelopori Gandhi adalah bantahan awam secara pasif atau bantahan awam tanpa kekerasan. Beliau merasakan Satyagraha atau perjuangan ke arah kebenaran perlu dilaksanakan menggunakan pendekatan psikologi untuk memperolehi simpati dan rasa hormat daripada pihak lawan. Bantahan awam secara pasif ini menurutnya menuntut keterbukaan sikap, rasa kasih sesama manusia dan disiplin diri yang tinggi. Seorang Satyagrahi mestilah rela dipukul, dihina dan dibunuh sekalipun untuk menegakkan kebenaran. Gandhi berpendapat kebenaran yang diperolehi secara kekerasan tidak akan kekal lama walaupun ianya dilihat mampu memberi kebaikan. Sebagai aplikasinya, Gandhi telah memilih undang-undang Garam British untuk ditentang secara terbuka tanpa melibatkan kekerasan. Pada 12 Mac 1930, beliau bersama 78 pengikut setianya daripada Ashram[1] telah berjalan kaki selama 24 hari menuju ke Wilayah Dandi, sebuah kawasan pesisiran pantai dimana garam boleh didapati secara percuma. Setibanya di sana, Gandhi telah disertai oleh beribu-ribu rakyat India yang turut membenci undang-undang tersebut. Beliau mengambil segenggam garam dengan penuh keazaman bahawa perjuangan kearah India Merdeka semakin bernyala. Simbolik daripada perbuatan Gandhi ini menyebabkan rakyat tidak lagi mempedulikan sebarang peraturan British yang mengongkongi kehidupan mereka. Mereka rela dibuang kerja, ditahan, dihukum dan dipenjarakan. Peristiwa ini yang dikenali sebagai Satyagraha Garam atau Dandi Salt March telah mendapat liputan seluruh dunia tentang usaha gigih Gandhi memperjuangkan nasib rakyatnya.

Konsep Kesamaan dan Keadilan
Gandhi telah memperjuangkan soal kesamaan sejak berada di Afrika Selatan lagi. Namun demikian, apabila beliau pulang ke India, penghinaan terhadap masyarakat luar kasta sangat keterlaluan sehingga mereka dianggap jijik, hina dan hanya layak melakukan kerja-kerja kotor seperti mencuci tandas, membersihkan longkang dan lain-lain lagi. Bagi sesetengah kasta yang ekstrim, bayang-bayang kaum luar kasta adalah diharamkan terkena kepada anggota badan mereka. Gandhi melihat penindasan kasta mempunyai persamaan dengan penjajahan Inggeris di India. Beliau beranggapan pembebasan kasta yang teraniaya dan terhina di India adalah langkah pertama kearah menebus maruah India. Selagi masyarakat Hindu berpegang kepada kemuliaan kasta, maka selagi itu British akan berkuasa di India kerana tidak wujud penyatuan dalam kalangan rakyat India sendiri.

Namun demikian, segala-galanya mengalami perubahan sedikit demi sedikit apabila Gandhi memperjuangkan nasib kaum tersebut setelah pulang ke India pada tahun 1915. Gandhi menggelarkan kaum luar kasta ini sebagai ‘Harijan’ yang bermaksud anak-anak Tuhan. Beliau telah berazam untuk berpuasa sehingga mati sekiranya kaum kasta atasan tidak bersedia menerima kaum luar kasta sebagai saudara mereka. Puasa yang berpanjangan ini telah menyentuh hati rakyat India. Kaum luar kasta mula diterima oleh kasta-kasta atasan untuk bersama-sama menyokong usaha penyatuan yang dibuat Gandhi ke arah menuju kemerdekaan. Mereka telah disentuh bahkan dipeluk oleh kaum Hindu yang lain sebagai tanda penerimaan kaum luar kasta ke dalam masyarakat. Perigi dan kuil yang dahulunya tertutup kepada mereka kini bebas digunakan. Gandhi sentiasa menegaskan di dalam ucapan-ucapanya bahawa semua insan adalah dalam satu kesatuan. Menurutnya lagi “apabila kita menyakiti oarng lain, kita menyakiti diri kita sendiri. Apabila kita melemahkan satu sama lain, kita melemahkan keseluruhan bangsa”.

Pandangan Terhadap Idea dan Pemikiran Gandhi
Secara keseluruhan, idea Gandhi dilihat amat menarik dan penuh dengan kreativiti dalam usahanya menentang penjajah British yang telah berkuasa di India selama hampir 500 tahun. Idea ini amat berbeza sekali dengan tokoh-tokoh perjuangan kemerdekaan di negara-negara lain kerana kebanyakan mereka mengangkat senjata untuk memperoleh kebebasan. Di Tanah Melayu sendiri, konsep ‘Satyagraha’ ini tidak pernah diaplikasikan secara sistematik kerana penentang kerap kali menggunakan kekerasan malah ada yang sanggup membunuh kerana kebencian yang meluap-luap terhadap penjajah. Contoh yang dapat diambil ialah pembunuhan Duncan Stewart, Gabenor Sarawak di bawah pemerintahan Charles Vyner Brooke oleh Rosli Dobhi. Beliau akhirnya dihukum gantung sampai mati akibat daripada kesalahan yang dilakukan tersebut.

Konsep ‘Satyagraha’ yang dipelopori Gandhi lebih merupakan pendekatan psikologi yang bertujuan untuk menundukkan pihak lawan tanpa menggunakan kekerasan. Sebenarnya Nabi Muhammad S.A.W sendiri telah mempraktikkan srategi yang dilaksanakan Gandhi dalam usaha baginda menyampaikan kebenaran yakni dakwah Islamiah. Hebatnya Nabi kerana baginda telah melaksanakan kaedah tersebut hampir 1500 tahun dahulu sebelum Gandhi kembali menonjolkannya di India dan Afrika Selatan. ‘ Satyagraha’ yang dilaksanakan Nabi jelas kelihatan semasa baginda cuba menyampaikan dakwah kepada penduduk Taif dan Mekah. Semasa baginda berdakwah di Taif, baginda telah dilontar dengan batu, kayu, pelepah tamar, najis, sisa-sisa makanan dan bangkai binatang. Penghinaan yang diterima oleh Nabi diharungi tanpa sebarang tindak balas melainkan kemurahan hati dan kasih sayang baginda untuk memaafkan. Baginda telah menolak permintaan Malaikat Jibril untuk menghempas bukit ke atas penduduk Taif yang melakukan perbuatan keji terhadap Nabi. Pendekatan yang digunakan Nabi telah berjaya mengangkat ketinggian peribadi baginda sehingga Islam akhirnya mudah disebarkan ke serata pelosok dunia. Pendek kata, kebenaran yang dibawa Nabi kebanyakannya adalah hasil kejayaan baginda yang menunjukkan contoh ahklak terpuji dan bersifat pemaaf untuk melembutkan hati pihak lawan. Teknik dakwah yang digunakan Nabi boleh dikira seperti bantahan awam tanpa kekerasan kerana Nabi menentang beberapa amalan dan peraturan hidup masyarakat Arab Jahiliah yang dianggap bertentangan dengan Islam tanpa sebarang kekerasan melainkan kelembutan, hikmah dan kasih sayang. Jelas disini terserlah beberapa kelebihan daripada penggunaan bantahan awam tanpa kekerasan dalam menegakkan sesuatu kebenaran.

Dalam membicarakan konsep kesamaan yang dipelopori Gandhi, sistem kasta di India memang telah sebati di dalam masyarakat tersebut sejak berabad-abad lamanya. Beliau sendiri adalah berkasta Vaisya yakni keturunan pedagang. Manusia sememangnya dilahirkan setaraf dan sedarjat. Hal ini selaras dengan kata-kata tokoh falsafah Perancis terkemuka Rousseau “ Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains”. Ayat ini telah menunjukkan bahawa manusia sememangnya dilahirkan untuk bebas tetapi tertakluk kepada peraturan-peraturan yang dimestikan untuk menjamin keamanan sejagat. Oleh yang demikian, sistem kasta yang berorintasikan penindasan terhadap masyarakat luar kasta adalah sesuatu yang jelek jika dilihat dalam konteks masyarakat hari ini. Percubaan Gandhi untuk mengubah pegangan masyarakat Hindu di India memang amat sukar untuk dilaksanakan pada awalnya namun keadaan ini semakin bertambah baik dari masa ke semasa walaupun selepas kematiannya.

Pernyataan Gandhi bahawa penindasan terhadap kaum luar kasta adalah sama seperti penjajahan British terhadap India sememangnya tepat untuk membuka fikiran masyarakat Hindu yang ketika itu sangat ortodok dengan amalan sistem kasta. Pemikiran Gandhi dilihat agak kritis dalam usahanya memperoleh sokongan daripada seluruh masyarakat India tanpa mengira kasta dan agama untuk bersama-sama memperjuangkan ‘Satyagraha’ ke arah kemerdekaan. Penentangan beliau terhadap sistem kasta telah melahirkan golongan ‘Harijan’ yang akhirnya diterima oleh seluruh masyarakat Hindu sebagai manusia biasa yang inginkan hak-hak kehidupan sempurna. Idea Gandhi ini sangat sesuai dilaksanakan melihat kepada situasi di India pada ketika itu yang berpecah belah akibat perbezaan kasta, suku dan agama. Tanpa kesepaduan dan persefahaman yang baik, sesuatu perjuangan untuk menegakkan kebenaran pasti sukar untuk dilaksanakan.

Di dalam ajaran Islam sendiri menekankan konsep kesamaan hak diantara setiap manusia yang hidup di dunia. Tiada manusia yang hebat di sisi Allah melainkan orang-orang yang beriman dan bertaqwa. Semasa Nabi Muhammad S.A.W menyeru kebenaran Islam kepada kaum musyrikin Mekah, baginda telah memilih golongan bawahan seperti hamba, orang-orang miskin dan anak yatim untuk disampaikan dakwahnya memandangkan Islam menolak segala bentuk penindasan manusia dari segi mental dan fizikal. Penolakan ini berjaya menambat hati ramai umat manusia bahawa Islam adalah sebuah ajaran yang bersifat syumul dan menjaga hak setiap penganutnya. Hal ini selaras dengan asal perkataan Islam itu sendiri yang beerti selamat. Sekali lagi kebenaran berjaya dicapai apabila manusia mengenepikan perbezaan keturunan, kaum , kasta, suku dan lain-lain lagi.

Setelah berbicara panjang mengenai kelebihan ‘Satyagraha’ atau konsep bantahan awam tanpa kekerasan yang dicetuskan Gandhi, wajar disini untuk melihat sedikit kekurangan yang timbul dan mungkin akan timbul daripada pelaksanaan konsep tersebut. Bantahan awam tanpa kekerasan memerlukan penyertaan masyarakat secara menyeluruh untuk menjamin kejayaannya. Masalah yang timbul ialah tidak semua individu sanggup melaksanakan konsep tersebut kerana takut menerima risiko dan hukuman yang berat daripada pihak yang ditentang. Sekiranya pihak yang ditentang itu terdiri daripada individu-individu dan kelompok masyarakat yang berkuasa seperti kerajaan, raja dan tentera, maka ketakutan itu lebih mencengkam diri mereka untuk melaksanakan bantahan awam tanpa kekerasan. Siapakah yang mahu menerima hukuman, kesakitan dan kesengsaraan tanpa sebab-sebab yang kukuh? Sudah pasti manusia yang normal akan cuba menjauhinya apatah lagi melibatkan diri ke arah jalan yang boleh membawa kepada hukuman tersebut. Tidak semua manusia mempunyai keteguhan hati dan kecekalan tinggi seperti Gandhi untuk rela dipukul, ditahan dan dipenjarakan dalam memperjuangkan kebenaran.

Memang tidak dapat dinafikan ramai juga manusia di dunia yang bergadai nyawa semata-mata untuk menegakkan kebenaran seperti Imam Hassan Albanna, Syed Qutb, Abu Al’La Maududi dan lain-lain lagi. Namun perjuangan mereka tidak boleh disamakan dengan situasi zaman sekarang kerana suasana kehidupan mereka amat berbeza daripada masyarakat masa kini. Hidup mereka pada ketika itu hanyalah bergantung kepada belas ihsan penjajah untuk terus hidup. Maka atas penderitaan yang mereka alami, mereka bangkit berjuang menuntut hak tetapi perjuangan tersebut berakhir dengan muntahan peluru dan tali gantung kepada mereka. Oleh yang demikian, kejayaan konsep ‘ Satyagraha’ amat bergantung kepada kekuatan tarbiah yang diberikan kepada para ‘Satyagrahi’ supaya mereka benar-benar memahami segala hal yang berkaitan dengan perjuangan tersebut. Pemahaman yang luas terhadap matlamat ‘Satyagraha’ dapat menjamin tujuan asal pelaksaannya tanpa mengira tempat dan waktu.

Selain itu, untuk melaksanakan bantahan awam tanpa kekerasan, perlu dilihat sejauh mana autoriti dan tolak ansur yang akan diberikan oleh pihak yang ditentang kerana mereka juga memainkan peranan yang besar dalam menentukan kejayaan bantahan awam tersebut. Melaksanakan bantahan awam secara pasif di negara-negara totalitarian adalah amat mustahil kerana sistem pemerintahan tersebut yang sememangnya ekstrim dengan undang-undang dan ketaatan kepada negara. Bantahan awam yang dilaksanakan pasti akan ditentang habis-habisan oleh kerajaan sekiranya terdapat unsur-unsur yang boleh mengancam kedudukan pemerintah. Di negara-negara demokrasi liberal, teknik tersebut mungkin sesuai dilaksanakan memandangkan corak pemerintahannya yang agak terbuka dari segi kawalan undang-undang. Tambahan pula, kebanyakan negara-negara yang mengamalkan sistem demokrasi liberal memberi ruang yang luas kepada sebarang tuntutan mendapatkan hak asasi dan keadilan. Oleh yang demikian, kejayaan pelaksanaan bantahan awam secara pasif amat bergantung kepada sistem pemerintahan sesebuah negara jika bantahan tersebut ditujukan kepada kerajaan yang memerintah.

KESIMPULAN

Kejayaan Gandhi yang terbesar ialah menyediakan rakyat India untuk menghadapi kemerdekaan. Sepanjang hayatnya, beliau mengajar tentang kebenaran dan kebersihan. Beliau mengajar masyarakat Hindu berbangga akan kebudayaan dan adat resam mereka. Jika dahulu mereka tunduk kepada penjajah, beliau mengajar mereka tentang harga diri. Keberanian dan ketabahannya mengajar rakyat India mempertahankan diri mereka. Gandhi dapat memahami perasaan golongan miskin dan mereka juga boleh menerima beliau. Beliau turut dicintai pekerja kilang, petani miskin dan mereka yang tertindas. Beliau juga disayangi oleh orang Islam kerana berjuang bagi pihak mereka. Beliau melambangkan jiwa India yang sebenar.

Falsafah Satyagraha yang dicetuskan beliau telah memberi sumber inspirasi kepada manusia dalam usaha menegakkan kebenaran. Teknik ini terbukti membuahkan hasil dalam beberapa kes seperti di Amerika Syarikat dan Britain. Pendekatan Psikologi diakui mampu mengubah pendirian seseorang dan pihak-pihak yang berkuasa. Namun pelaksanaanya memerlukan komitmen yang tinggi disamping pengorbanan diri tanpa mengharapkan balasan. Keunikan falsafah ini wajar dikaji dengan lebih mendalam untuk mengetahui rahsia-rahsia terselindung yang mungkin tidak diketahui manusia lain kecuali pengasasnya, Gandhi. Bantahan awam tanpa kekerasan mungkin suatu hari nanti akan menjadi cara yang paling dominan di setiap negara untuk menentang sebarang undang-undang kerajaan yang tidak relevan. Masyarakat masa kini adalah berbeza daripada masyarakat zaman dahulu di mana sebarang tindakan yang menggunakan kekerasan pada hari ini dilihat sebagai sesuatu yang negatif, kolot dan tidak bermoral. Justeru itu, bantahan awam tanpa kekerasan adalah inisiatif terbaik untuk menegakkan sebarang kebenaran.

SENARAI RUJUKAN
Nicholson, M. 1997. Mahatma Gandhi: Insan membebaskan India dan memulakan tindakan tanpa kekerasan. Terjemahan Imran Ho Abdullah. Shah Alam: Penerbitan Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd.
Ryan, N. 1978. India: Nasionalisme dan Kemerdekaan. Kuala Lumpur: Longman Malaysia Sdn Bhd.
Philips, C.H. 1966. Sejarah India. Kuala Lumpur: Percetakan Art Printing Works.
Horsburgh, H.J.N. 1968. Non –Violence and Agression: A study of Gandhi’s Moral Equivalent of War. London: Oxford University Press.
Wolpert, S. 2004. A New History of India. New York: Oxford University Press.
Spear, P. 1972. India: A modern history. Michigan: The University of Michigan Press.
Saliha Hassan. 1999. Pengantar Falsafah Politik Mj 2264. Bangi: Penerbit UKM. http://www.mkgandhi.org/main.htm (2 April 2009)

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[1] Ashram adalah sebuah tempat yang diibaratkan sebagai akademi dimana para penuntutnya mempraktikan seluruh gaya hidup Gandhi di dalam kehidupan mereka. Memintal adalah merupakan sebahagian daripada ibadat harian.Segala makanan di tanam di kawasan tesebut dan ahlinya hidup miskin. Ashram Sevagram yang ditubuhkan Gandhi masih lagi beroperasi di India sehingga hari ini.

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